<p>The Graian Alps  are a mountain range in the western part of the Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Graie comes from the Graioceli Celtic tribe, which dwelled in the area surrounding the Mont Cenis pass and the Viù valley.</p><br>
<p>Other sources claim that the name comes from the Celtic "Graig" meaning rock/stone, literally the Rocky Mountains</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Graian Alps are located in France (Rhône-Alpes), Italy (Piedmont and the Aosta Valley), and Switzerland (western Valais).</p><br>
<p>The French side of the Graian Alps is drained by the river Isère (Tarentaise valley) and its tributary Arc (Maurienne valley), and by the Arve. The Italian side is drained by the rivers Dora Baltea, Orco and Stura di Lanzo, tributaries of the Po.</p><br>
<p>The Graian Alps can also be divided into the following four groups:</p><br>
<p>the Mont Blanc group (north of the Little St Bernard Pass)</p><br>
<p>the Central group (the watershed between the Little St Bernard Pass and the Col du Mont Cenis)</p><br>
<p>the Western or French group,</p><br>
<p>and the Eastern or Italian group.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The main peaks of the Graian Alps are:</p><br>
<h3>Mont Blanc group</h3><br>
<h3>Central group</h3><br>
<h3>Eastern group</h3><br>
<h3>Western group</h3><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>The main passes of the Graian Alps are shown in the table below. The group in which the pass is located is indicated with "MB" for Mont Blanc group, "C" for Central group, "E" for Eastern group, and "W" for Western group.</p><br>
<h2>Nature conservation</h2><br>
<p>The western group contains the Vanoise National Park, established in 1972 and covering 1250 km²; the eastern group contains the Gran Paradiso National Park, the oldest Italian national park.</p><br>
<p>Also on the Italian side is located the Parco Regionale del Monte Avic, a nature park of 5,747 ha established by Regione Valle d&#39;Aosta.</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>Italian official cartography (Istituto Geografico Militare - IGM); on-line version:</p><br>
<p>French official cartography (Institut Géographique National - IGN); on-line version:</p><br>
<p>Swiss official cartography (Swiss Federal Office of Topography - Swisstopo); on-line version:</p><br>
<p>Øresund or Öresund , commonly known in English as the Sound, is a strait which forms the Danish–Swedish border, separating Zealand  from Scania . The strait has a length of 118 km and the width varies from 4 km to 28 km. It is 4 km wide at its narrowest point between Helsingør in Denmark and Helsingborg in Sweden.</p><br>
<p>Øresund is along with the Great Belt, Little Belt and Kiel Canal one of four waterways that connects the Baltic Sea to the Atlantic Ocean via Kattegat, Skagerrak, and the North Sea, and is one of the busiest waterways in the world.</p><br>
<p>The Øresund Bridge, between the Danish capital Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö, inaugurated on 1 July 2000, connects a bi-national metropolitan area with close to 4 million inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The HH Ferry route, between Helsingør, Denmark and Helsingborg, Sweden, in the northern part of Øresund, is one of the world&#39;s busiest international ferry routes with more than 70 departures from each harbour per day.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The strait is called Øresund in Danish and Öresund in Swedish, informally Sundet (lit. "the Strait") in both languages.</p><br>
<p>The first part of the name is øre "gravel/sand beach", and the second part is sund, i.e. "sound, strait".</p><br>
<p>The name is first attested on a runestone dated to ca. AD 1000, where it is written as ura suti, read as Old East Norse (the dative case).</p><br>
<p>The Old West Norse (and modern Icelandic) form of the name is Eyrarsund.</p><br>
<p>Ör is the modern form of the old Norse word (aur) meaning a gravel beach or shoal (see also ayre), often forming a spit. Such landforms are common in the area and "ör" is found in many place names along the strait e.g. Helsingør, Skanör, Dragør and Halör, an important center of trade during the Viking Age.</p><br>
<p>Ordbog over det danske Sprog "et smalt stykke land imellem to store vande, fra et land til andet. Øresund kaldes saaledes fordi det begynder ved Siellands Øre og ved Øster-Søen ved et Øre, som er Skan-Øre. sandet ell. gruset strand(bred), ofte spec.: dannende en odde, en halvø ell. en smal landtange."</p><br>
<p>, Ordbog over det danske Sprog. C.f. also Ole Lauridsen in the Danish radio program Sproghjørnet.</p><br>
<h2>Boundaries</h2><br>
<p>The northern boundary between Øresund and Kattegat is a line which goes from Gilleleje at Zealands northern peak to the westernmost point of Kullaberg (Kullens Lighthouse) at the smaller peninsula north of Helsingborg, known as Kullahalvön. In the south, the boundary towards the Baltic Sea starts at Stevns Klint, at the westernmost peak of the peninsula just south of Køge Bay, Stevns Peninsula to Falsterbo at the Falsterbo peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Its eastern boundary is the Swedish coastline; to the west Amager may be considered part of Øresund (in which case it is the largest island) or a part of Zealand. Amager has eight connections with Zealand (two street bridges, a road bridge, a motorway bridge, a dual-track railway tunnel, an underground metro and a bicycle bridge) as well as a combined motorway and dual track railway to Scania and Sweden.</p><br>
<h2>Streams, animals and salinity</h2><br>
<p>Øresund, like other Danish and Danish-German straits, is at the border between oceanic salt water (which has a salinity of more than 30 PSU or per mille by weight) and the far less salty Baltic Sea.</p><br>
<p>As the Cattegat in the north has almost oceanic conditions and the Baltic Sea (around 7 PSU, in its main basin) has brackish water, Øresund&#39;s water conditions are rather unusual and shifting. The streams are very complex, but the surface stream is often northbound (from the Baltic Sea) which gives a lower surface salinity, though streams can change from one day to another. The average surface salinity is about 10–12 PSU in the southern part but above 20 PSU north of Helsingør.</p><br>
<p>Near the seafloor (where the sea is deep enough), conditions are more stable and salinity is always oceanic (above 30 PSU) below a certain depth that varies between 10 and 15 metres. In the southern part, however, the depth is 5–6 metres (outside the rather narrow waterways Drogden and Flintrännan), and this is the definite border of oceanic salt water, therefore also a border for many maritime species of animals. Only 52 known salt-water species reside in the central Baltic Sea, compared to around 1500 in the North Sea. Close to 600 species are known to exist in at least some part of Øresund. Well-known examples, for which the bottom salinity makes a distinct breeding border, include lobster, small crabs (Carcinus maenas), several species of flatfish and the lion&#39;s mane jellyfish; the latter can sometimes drift into the southwest Baltic Sea, but it cannot reproduce there.</p><br>
<p>There are daily tides, but the lunar attraction cannot force much water to move from west to east, or vice versa, in narrow waters where the current is either northbound or southbound. So, not much of the difference in water levels in Øresund is due to daily tides, and other circumstances "hide" the little tide that still remains. The current has a much stronger effect than the tide on the water level, but strong winds may also affect the water level. During exceptional conditions, such as storms and hurricanes, oceanic water may suddenly flow into the Baltic Sea at all depths. Such events give deep waters in the southern Baltic Sea higher salinity, which makes it possible for cod to breed there. If no such inflow of oceanic water to the Baltic Sea occurs for around a decade, the breeding of cod becomes endangered.</p><br>
<p>Generally, when the current shifts from northbound to southbound, it never turns 180 degrees with the same flow, instead does the current "slow down to zero" and then begins to flow in opposite direction. (Local phenomenon close to shores, might differ from this general pattern)</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Political control of Øresund has been an important issue in Danish and Swedish history. Denmark maintained military control with the coastal fortress of Kronborg at Elsinore on the west side and Kärnan at Helsingborg on the east, until the eastern shore was ceded to Sweden in 1658, based on the Treaty of Roskilde. Both fortresses are located where the strait is 4 kilometres wide.</p><br>
<p>In 1429, King Eric of Pomerania introduced the Sound Dues which remained in effect for more than four centuries, until 1857. Transitory dues on the use of waterways, roads, bridges and crossings were then an accepted way of taxing which could constitute a great part of a state&#39;s income.</p><br>
<p>The Strait Dues remained the most important source of income for the Danish Crown for several centuries, thus making Danish kings relatively independent of Denmark&#39;s Privy Council and aristocracy.</p><br>
<p>To be independent of the Øresund, Sweden carried out two great projects, the foundation of Göteborg (Gothenborg) in 1621 and the construction of the Göta Canal from 1810 to 1832.</p><br>
<p>The Copenhagen Convention of 1857 abolished the Dues and made the Danish straits an international waterway.</p><br>
<p>A fixed connection was opened across the strait in 2000, the Øresund Bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Notable islands</h2><br>
<h3>Denmark</h3><br>
<p>Amager (western part is artificial enlargement from Øresund, or from Kalvebodene more precicely)</p><br>
<p>Saltholm</p><br>
<p>Peberholm – an artificial island</p><br>
<p>Middelgrundsfortet – an artificial island</p><br>
<p>Flakfortet – an artificial island</p><br>
<h3>Sweden</h3><br>
<p>Ven (Hven in Danish)</p><br>
<p>Gråen – an artificial island outside port of Landskrona (enlargements from Øresund in the 17th and 20th centuries)</p><br>
<p>The Second Bank of the United States, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the second federally authorized Hamiltonian national bank in the United States during its 20-year charter from February 1816 to January 1836. The bank&#39;s formal name, according to section 9 of its charter as passed by Congress, was "The President, Directors, and Company, of the Bank of the United States."</p><br>
<p>A private corporation with public duties, the bank handled all fiscal transactions for the USA Government, and was accountable to Congress and the USA Treasury. Twenty percent of its capital was owned by the federal government, the banks single largest stockholder. Four thousand private investors held 80% of the banks capital, including one thousand Europeans. The bulk of the stocks were held by a few hundred wealthy Americans. In its time, the institution was the largest monied corporation in the world.</p><br>
<p>The essential function of the bank was to regulate the public credit issued by private banking institutions through the fiscal duties it performed for the USA Treasury, and to establish a sound and stable national currency. The federal deposits endowed the BUS with its regulatory capacity.</p><br>
<p>Modeled on Alexander Hamilton&#39;s First Bank of the United States, the Second Bank was chartered by President James Madison in 1816 and began operations at its main branch in Philadelphia on January 7, 1817, managing twenty-five branch offices nationwide by 1832.</p><br>
<p>The efforts to renew the banks charter put the institution at the center of the general election of 1832, in which the banks president Nicholas Biddle and pro-bank National Republicans led by Henry Clay clashed with the "hard-money" Andrew Jackson administration and eastern banking interests in the Bank War. Failing to secure recharter, the Second Bank of the United States became a private corporation in 1836, and underwent liquidation in 1841.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Establishment</h3><br>
<p>The political support for the revival of a national banking system was rooted in the early 19th century transformation of the country from simple Jeffersonian agrarianism towards one interdependent with industrialization and finance. In the aftermath of the War of 1812 the federal government suffered from the disarray of an unregulated currency and a lack of fiscal order; business interests sought security for their government bonds. A national alliance arose to legislate a central bank to address these needs.</p><br>
<p>The political climate—dubbed the Era of Good Feelings—favored the development of national programs and institutions, including a protective tariff, internal improvements and the revival of a Bank of the United States Southern and western support for the bank, led by Republican nationalists John C. Calhoun of South Carolina and Henry Clay of Kentucky was decisive in the successful chartering effort. The charter was signed into law by Madison on April 10, 1816. Subsequent efforts by Calhoun and Clay to earmark the bank&#39;s $1.5 million establishment "bonus", and annual dividends estimated at $650,000, as a fund for internal improvements, was vetoed by President James Madison, on strict constructionist grounds.</p><br>
<p>Opposition to the banks revival emanated from two interests. Old Republicans, represented by John Taylor of Caroline and John Randolph of Roanoke characterized the Second Bank of the United States as both constitutionally illegitimate and a direct threat to Jeffersonian agrarianism, state sovereignty and the institution of slavery, expressed by Taylors statement that "...if Congress could incorporate a bank, it might emancipate a slave". Hostile to the regulatory effects of the central bank, private banks—proliferating with or without state charters—had scuttled rechartering of the first BUS in 1811. These interests played significant roles in undermining the institution during the administration of USA President Andrew Jackson (1829–1837).</p><br>
<h3>Economic functions</h3><br>
<p>The BUS was launched in the midst of a major global market readjustment as Europe recovered from the Napoleonic Wars The central bank was charged with restraining uninhibited private bank note issue—already in progress—that threatened to create a credit bubble and the risks of a financial collapse. Government land sales in the West, fueled by European demand for agricultural products, ensured that a speculative bubble would form. Simultaneously, the national bank was engaged in promoting a democratized expansion of credit to accommodate laissez-faire impulses among eastern business entrepreneurs and credit hungry western and southern farmers.</p><br>
<p>Under the management of the first BUS president William Jones, the bank failed to control paper money issued from its branch banks in the West and South, contributing to the post-war speculative land boom. When the USA markets collapsed in the Panic of 1819—a result of global economic adjustments—the central bank came under withering criticism for its belated tight money policies—policies that exacerbated mass unemployment and plunging property values. Further, it transpired that branch directors for the Baltimore office had engaged in fraud and larceny.</p><br>
<p>Resigning in January 1819, Jones was replaced by Langdon Cheves who continued the contraction in credit in an effort to stop inflation and stabilize the bank, even as the economy began to correct. The central bank&#39;s reaction to the crisis—a clumsy expansion, then a sharp contraction of credit—indicated its weakness, not its strength. The effects were catastrophic, resulting in a protracted recession with mass unemployment and a sharp drop in property values that persisted until 1822. Upon this widespread disaffection the anti-bank Jacksonian Democrats would mobilize opposition to the BUS in the 1830s.</p><br>
<p>Under Biddle&#39;s guidance, the BUS evolved into a powerful banking institution that produced a strong and sound system of national credit and currency. From 1823 to 1833, Biddle expanded credit steadily, but with restraint, in a manner that served the needs of the expanding American economy. Albert Gallatin, former Secretary of the Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, wrote in 1831 that the BUS was fulfilling its charter expectations.</p><br>
<h3>Jackson's Bank War</h3><br>
<p>By the time of Jacksons inauguration in 1829, the national bank appeared to be on solid footing. The USA Supreme Court had affirmed the constitutionality of the bank under McCulloch v. Maryland, the 1819 case which Daniel Webster had argued successfully on its behalf a decade earlier, the USA Treasury recognized the useful services it provided, and the American currency was healthy and stable. Public perceptions of the central bank were generally positive. The bank first came under attack by the Jackson administration in December 1829, on the grounds that it had failed to produce a stable national currency, and that it lacked constitutional legitimacy. Both houses of Congress responded with committee investigations and reports affirming the historical precedents for the banks constitutionality and its pivotal role in furnishing a uniform currency. Jackson rejected these findings, and privately characterized the bank as a corrupt institution, dangerous to American liberties.</p><br>
<p>Biddle made repeated overtures to Jackson and his cabinet to secure a compromise on the banks rechartering (its term due to expire in 1836) without success. Jackson and the anti-bank forces persisted in their condemnation of the BUS, provoking an early recharter campaign by pro-bank National Republicans under Henry Clay. Clays political ultimatum to Jackson—with Biddle&#39;s financial and political support—sparked the Bank War and placed the fate of the BUS at center of the 1832 presidential election.</p><br>
<p>Jackson mobilized his political base by vetoing the recharter bill and, the veto sustained, easily won reelection on his anti-bank platform. Jackson proceeded to destroy the bank as a financial and political force by removing its federal deposits, and in 1833, federal revenue was diverted into selected private banks by executive order, ending the regulatory role of the Second Bank of the United States.</p><br>
<p>In hopes of extorting a rescue of the bank, Biddle induced a short-lived financial crisis that was initially blamed on Jacksons executive action. By 1834, a general backlash against Biddles tactics developed, ending the panic and all recharter efforts were abandoned.</p><br>
<p>In February 1836, the bank became a private corporation under Pennsylvania commonwealth law. A shortage of hard currency ensued, causing the Panic of 1837 and lasting approximately seven years. The Bank suspended payment in 1839 and was liquidated in 1841.</p><br>
<h3>Branches</h3><br>
<p>The bank maintained the following branches. Listed is the year each branch opened.</p><br>
<p>Augusta, Georgia (1817, closed 1817)</p><br>
<p>Baltimore, Maryland (1817)</p><br>
<p>Boston, Massachusetts (1817)</p><br>
<p>Charleston, South Carolina (1817)</p><br>
<p>Chillicothe, Ohio (1817)</p><br>
<p>Cincinnati, Ohio (1817)</p><br>
<p>Fayetteville, North Carolina (1817)</p><br>
<p>Lexington, Kentucky (1817)</p><br>
<p>Louisville, Kentucky (1817)</p><br>
<p>Middletown, Connecticut (1817)</p><br>
<p>New Orleans, Louisiana (1817)</p><br>
<p>New York City (1817)</p><br>
<p>Norfolk, Virginia (1817)</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth, New Hampshire (1817)</p><br>
<p>Providence, Rhode Island (1817)</p><br>
<p>Richmond, Virginia (1817)</p><br>
<p>Savannah, Georgia (1817)</p><br>
<p>Washington, D.C. (1817)</p><br>
<p>Mobile, Alabama (1826)</p><br>
<p>Nashville, Tennessee (1827)</p><br>
<p>Portland, Maine (1828)</p><br>
<p>Buffalo, New York (1829)</p><br>
<p>St. Louis, Missouri (1829)</p><br>
<p>Burlington, Vermont (1830)</p><br>
<p>Utica, New York (1830)</p><br>
<p>Natchez, Mississippi (1830)</p><br>
<h2>Terms of charter</h2><br>
<p>The Second Bank of the United States was America&#39;s central bank, comparable to the Bank of England and the Bank of France, with one key distinction – the United States government owned one-fifth (20%) of its capital. Whereas other central banks of that era were wholly private, the BUS was more characteristic of a government bank.</p><br>
<p>Under its charter, the bank had a capital limit of $35 million, $7.5 million of which represented the government-owned share. The central bank was required to remit a "bonus" payment of $1.5 million, payable in three installments, and subject to Treasury Department inspection.</p><br>
<p>As exclusive fiscal agent for the federal government, it provided a number of services as part of its charter including: holding and transfer of all USA deposits, payment and receipt of all government transactions, and processing of tax payments. In other words, the BUS was "the depository of the federal government, which was its principal stockholder and customer".</p><br>
<p>The chief personnel for the bank comprised twenty-five directors, five of whom were appointed by the President of the United States, subject to Senate approval. Federally appointed directors were barred from acting as officials in other banks. Two of the three BUS presidents, William Jones and Nicholas Biddle, were chosen from among these government directors.</p><br>
<p>Headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the bank was authorized to establish branch offices where it deemed suitable and these were immune from state taxation.</p><br>
<h2>BUS regulatory mechanisms</h2><br>
<p>The primary regulatory task of the Second Bank of the United States, as chartered by Congress in 1816, was to restrain the uninhibited proliferation of paper money (bank notes) by state or private lenders, which was highly profitable to these institutions.</p><br>
<p>In this capacity, the bank would preside over this democratization of credit, contributing to a vast and profitable disbursement of bank loans to farmers, small manufacturers and entrepreneurs, encouraging rapid and healthy economic expansion.</p><br>
<p>Historian Bray Hammond describes the mechanism by which the Bank exerted its anti-inflationary influence:</p><br>
<p>Under this banking regime, the impulse towards over speculation, with the risks of creating a national financial crisis, would be avoided, or at least mitigated. It was just this mechanism that the local private banks found objectionable, because it yoked their lending strategies to the fiscal operations of the national government, requiring them to maintain adequate gold and silver reserves to meet their debt obligations to the USA Treasury. The proliferation of private-sector banking institutions – from 31 banks in 1801 to 788 in 1837 – meant that the Second Bank faced strong opposition from this sector during the Jackson administration.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The architect of the Second Bank of the United States was William Strickland (1788–1854), a former student of Benjamin Latrobe (1764–1820), the man who is often called the first professionally trained American architect. Latrobe and Strickland were both disciples of the Greek Revival style. Strickland would go on to design many other American public buildings in this style, including financial structures such as the New Orleans, Dahlonega, Mechanics National Bank (also in Philadelphia) and Charlotte branch mints in the mid-to-late 1830s, as well as the second building for the main USA Mint in Philadelphia in 1833.</p><br>
<p>Stricklands design for the Second Bank of the United States is in essence based on the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, and is a significant early and monumental example of Greek Revival architecture. The hallmarks of the Greek Revival style can be seen immediately in the north and south façades, which use a large set of steps leading up to the main level platform, known as the stylobate. On top of these, Strickland placed eight severe Doric columns, which are crowned by an entablature containing a triglyph frieze and simple triangular pediment. The building appears much as an ancient Greek temple, hence the stylistic name. The interior consists of an entrance hallway in the center of the north façade flanked by two rooms on either side. The entry leads into two central rooms, one after the other, that span the width of the structure east to west. The east and west sides of the first large room are each pierced by large arched fan window. The buildings exterior uses Pennsylvania blue marble, which, due to the manner in which it was cut, has begun to deteriorate from the exposure to the elements of weak parts of the stone. This phenomenon is most visible on the Doric columns of the south façade. Construction lasted from 1819 to 1824.</p><br>
<p>The Greek Revival style used for the Second Bank contrasts with the earlier, Federal style in architecture used for the First Bank of the United States, which also still stands and is located nearby in Philadelphia. This can be seen in the more Roman-influenced Federal structure&#39;s ornate, colossal Corinthian columns of its façade, which is also embellished by Corinthian pilasters and a symmetric arrangement of sash windows piercing the two stories of the façade. The roofline is also topped by a balustrade and the heavy modillions adorning the pediment give the First Bank an appearance much more like a Roman villa than a Greek temple.</p><br>
<h3>Current building use</h3><br>
<p>Since the bank&#39;s closing in 1841, the edifice has performed a variety of functions. Today, it is part of Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia.</p><br>
<p>The structure is open to the public free of charge and serves as an art gallery, housing a large collection of portraits of prominent early Americans painted by Charles Willson Peale and many others.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987 for its architectural and historic significance.</p><br>
<p>The President, Directors and Company, of the Bank of the United States, commonly known as the First Bank of the United States, was a national bank, chartered for a term of twenty years, by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. It followed the Bank of North America, the nation&#39;s first de facto central bank.</p><br>
<p>Establishment of the Bank of the United States was part of a three-part expansion of federal fiscal and monetary power, along with a federal mint and excise taxes, championed by Alexander Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton believed a national bank was necessary to stabilize and improve the nation&#39;s credit, and to improve handling of the financial business of the United States government under the newly enacted Constitution.</p><br>
<p>The First Bank building, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, within Independence National Historical Park, was completed in 1797, and is a National Historic Landmark for its historic and architectural significance.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>In 1791, the First Bank of the United States was one of the four major financial innovations proposed and supported by Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. In addition to the national bank, the other measures were assumption of the state war debts by the USA government, establishment of a mint and imposition of a federal excise tax. The goals of Hamilton&#39;s three measures were to:</p><br>
<p>Establish financial order, clarity and precedence in and of the newly formed United States.</p><br>
<p>Establish credit—both in country and overseas—for the new nation.</p><br>
<p>Resolve the issue of the fiat currency, issued by the Continental Congress immediately prior to and during the American Revolutionary War—the "Continental".</p><br>
<p>In simpler words, Hamilton&#39;s four goals were to:</p><br>
<p>Have the Federal Government assume the Revolutionary War debts of the several states</p><br>
<p>Pay off the war debts</p><br>
<p>Raise money for the new government</p><br>
<p>Establish a national bank and create a common currency</p><br>
<h2>Proposal</h2><br>
<p>According to the plan put before the first session of the First Congress in 1790, Hamilton proposed establishing the initial funding for the First Bank of the United States through the sale of $10 million in stock of which the United States government would purchase the first $2 million in shares. Hamilton, foreseeing the objection that this could not be done since the USA government did not have $2 million, proposed that the government make the stock purchase using money lent to it by the bank; the loan to be paid back in ten equal annual installments. The remaining $8 million of stock would be available to the public, both in the United States and overseas. The chief requirement of these non-government purchases was that one-quarter of the purchase price had to be paid in gold or silver; the remaining balance could be paid in bonds, acceptable scrip, etc.</p><br>
<p>By continuously insisting on these conditions, the First Bank of the United States might technically possess $500,000 in "real" money that it could, and would, use as security to make loans up to its capitalized limit of $10 million. However, unlike the Bank of England, the primary function of the bank would be credit issued to government and private interests, for internal improvements and other economic development, per Hamilton&#39;s system of Public Credit. The business it would be involved in on behalf of the federal government—a depository for collected taxes, making short term loans to the government to cover real or potential temporary income gaps, serving as a holding site for both incoming and outgoing monies—was considered highly important but still secondary in nature.</p><br>
<p>There were other, nonnegotiable conditions for the establishment of the First Bank of the United States. Among these were:</p><br>
<p>That the bank would have a twenty-year charter running from 1791 to 1811, after which time it would be up to the Congress to approve or deny renewal of the bank and its charter; however, during that time no other federal bank would be authorized; states, for their part, would be free to charter however many intrastate banks they wished.</p><br>
<p>That the bank, to avoid any appearance of impropriety, would:</p><br>
<p>#be forbidden to buy government bonds.</p><br>
<p>#have a mandatory rotation of directors.</p><br>
<p>#neither issue notes nor incur debts beyond its actual capitalization.</p><br>
<p>That foreigners, whether overseas or residing in the United States, would be allowed to be First Bank of the United States stockholders, but would not be allowed to vote.</p><br>
<p>That the Secretary of the Treasury would be free to remove government deposits, inspect the books, and require statements regarding the bank&#39;s condition as frequently as once a week.</p><br>
<p>To ensure that the government could meet both the current and future demands of its governmental accounts, an additional source of funding was required, "for interest payments on the assumed state debts would begin to fall due at the end of 1791...those payments would require $788,333 annually, and... an additional $38,291 was needed to cover deficiencies in the funds that had been appropriated for existing commitments." To achieve this, Hamilton repeated a suggestion he had made nearly a year before—increase the duty on imported spirits, plus raise the excise tax on domestically distilled whiskey and other liquors. Local opposition to the tax led to the Whiskey Rebellion.</p><br>
<h2>Opposition</h2><br>
<p>Hamilton&#39;s bank proposal faced widespread resistance from opponents of increased federal power. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and James Madison led the opposition, which claimed that the bank was unconstitutional, and that it benefited merchants and investors at the expense of the majority of the population.</p><br>
<p>Like most of the Southern members of Congress, Jefferson and Madison also opposed a second of the three proposals of Hamilton: establishing an official government Mint. They believed this centralization of power away from local banks was dangerous to a sound monetary system and was mostly to the benefit of business interests in the commercial north, not southern agricultural interests, arguing that the right to own property would be infringed by these proposals. Furthermore, they contended that the creation of such a bank violated the Constitution, which specifically stated that congress was to regulate weights and measures and issue coined money (rather than mint and bills of credit).</p><br>
<p>The first part of the bill, the concept and establishment of a national mint, met with no real objection, and sailed through; it was assumed the second and third part (the bank and an excise tax to finance it) would likewise glide through, and in their own way they did: The House version of the bill, despite some heated objections, easily passed. The Senate version of the bill did likewise, with considerably fewer, and milder, objections. It was when "the two bills changed houses, complications set in. In the Senate, Hamiltons supporters objected to the Houses alteration of the plans for the excise tax."</p><br>
<p>The establishment of the bank also raised early questions of constitutionality in the new government. Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, argued that the bank was an effective means to utilize the authorized powers of the government implied under the law of the Constitution. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson argued that the bank violated traditional property laws and that its relevance to constitutionally authorized powers was weak. Another argument came from James Madison, who believed Congress had not received the power to incorporate a bank, or any other governmental agency. His argument rested primarily on the Tenth Amendment: that all powers not endowed to Congress are retained by the States (or the people). Additionally, his belief was that if the Constitutions writers had wanted Congress to have such power, they would have made it explicit. The decision would ultimately fall on President George Washington, following his deliberate investigation of the cabinet members opinions.</p><br>
<h2>Presidential approval</h2><br>
<p>George Washington initially declared that he was hesitant to sign the "bank bill" into law. Washington asked for the written advice and supporting reasons from all his cabinet members—most particularly from Hamilton. Attorney General Edmund Randolph from Virginia felt that the bill was unconstitutional. Jefferson, also from Virginia, agreed that Hamiltons proposal was against both the spirit and letter of the Constitution. Hamilton, who, unlike his fellow cabinet members, came from New York, quickly responded to those who claimed incorporation of the bank unconstitutional. While Hamiltons rebuttals were many and varied, chief among them were these two:</p><br>
<p>What the government could do for a person (incorporate), it could not refuse to do for an "artificial person", a business. And the First Bank of the United States, being privately owned and not a government agency, was a business. "Thus...unquestionably incident to sovereign power to erect corporations to that of the United States, in relation to the objects entrusted to the management of the government."</p><br>
<p>Any government by its very nature was sovereign "and includes by force of the term a right to attainment of the ends...which are not precluded by restrictions & exceptions specified in the constitution...</p><br>
<p>On February 25, 1791, convinced that the constitution authorized the measure, Washington signed the "bank bill" into law.</p><br>
<p>On March 19, 1791 Washington appointed three Commissioners for the taking of subscriptions for this new bank: Thomas Willing, David Rittenhouse, and Samuel Howell.</p><br>
<h2>Expiration of charter</h2><br>
<p>After Hamilton left office in 1795, the new Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. informed Congress that, due to the existing state of government finances, more money was needed. This could be achieved either by selling the government&#39;s shares of stock in the bank, or by raising taxes. Wolcott advised the first choice. Congress quickly agreed. Hamilton objected, believing that the dividends on that stock had been inviolably pledged for the support of the sinking fund to retire the debt. Hamilton tried to organize opposition to the measure, but was unsuccessful.</p><br>
<p>In 1811, the USA Senate tied on a vote to renew the banks charter. Vice President George Clinton broke the tie and voted against renewal. The banks charter thus expired in 1811.</p><br>
<p>In 1816, the bank was succeeded by the Second Bank of the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Purchase by Girard</h2><br>
<p>After the charter for the First Bank of the United States expired in 1811, Stephen Girard purchased most of its stock as well as the building and its furnishings on South Third Street in Philadelphia and opened his own bank, later known as Girard Bank. Girard hired George Simpson, the cashier of the First Bank of the United States, as cashier of the new bank, and with seven other employees, opened for business on May 18, 1812. He allowed the Trustees of the First Bank of the United States to use some offices and space in the vaults to continue the process of winding down the affairs of the closed bank at a very nominal rent.</p><br>
<p>Over its early history the bank was known as “Girard’s Bank,” or as “Girard Bank” or also as “Stephen Girard’s Bank” or even the “Bank of Stephen Girard.” Girard was the sole proprietor of his bank, and thus avoided the Pennsylvania state law which prohibited an unincorporated association of persons from establishing a bank, and which required a charter from the legislature for a banking corporation.</p><br>
<h2>Bank building</h2><br>
<p>The First Bank of the United States was established in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, while the city served as the national capital, from 1790 to 1800. In the eighteenth century, Philadelphia was one of the largest cities in the English-speaking world. The bank began operations in Carpenters&#39; Hall in 1791, some 200 feet from its permanent home.</p><br>
<p>Design of the bank building is credited to Samuel Blodgett, Superintendent of Buildings for the new capital in Washington, DC., although it has also been attributed to James Hoban. It was completed in 1795.</p><br>
<p>The First Bank of the United States has received various designations as a historic building. It was included in Independence National Historical Park when the park was formed in 1956. The building&#39;s architecture was studied by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1958.</p><br>
<p>Until about 2000, the building housed offices for Independence National Historical Park. A proposal to have it house the collection of the Philadelphia Civil War Museum was abandoned when funding from the state of Pennsylvania was not forthcoming. Future plans are for it to house the National Park Service archaeology lab, currently across the street in the old Visitor Center.</p><br>
<p>Triglav , with an elevation of 2,863.65 m, is the highest mountain in Slovenia and the highest peak of the Julian Alps. The mountain is the pre-eminent symbol of the Slovene Nation. It is the centrepiece of Triglav National Park, Slovenias only national park. Triglav was also the highest peak in Yugoslavia before Slovenias independence in 1991.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Various names have been used for the mountain through history. An old map from 1567 named it Ocra mons, whereas Johann Weikhard von Valvasor named it Krma in the second half of the 17th century. According to the German mountaineer and professor Adolf Gstirner, the name Triglav first appeared in written sources as Terglau in 1452, but the original source has been lost. The next known occurrence of Terglau is cited by Gstirner and is from a court description of the border in 1573. Early forms of the name Triglav also include Terglau in 1612, Terglou in 1664 and Terklou around 1778–89. The name is derived from the compound *Tri-golvъ (literally three-head—that is, three peaks), which may be understood literally because the mountain has three peaks when viewed from much of Upper Carniola. It is unlikely that the name has any connection to the Slavic deity Triglav. In the local dialect, the name is pronounced Tərgwò (with a second-syllable accent) in contrast to standard Slovene Tríglav.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded ascent of Triglav was achieved in 1778, on the initiative of the industrialist and polymath Sigmund Zois. According to the most commonly cited report, published in the newspaper Illyrisches Blatt in 1821 by the historian and geographer Johann Richter, these were the surgeon Lovrenz Willomitzer (written as Willonitzer by Richter), the chamois hunter Štefan Rožič, and the miners Luka Korošec and Matevž Kos. According to a report by Belsazar Hacquet in his Oryctographia Carniolica, this happened towards the end of 1778, by two chamois hunters, one of them being Luka Korošec, and one of his former students, whose name is not mentioned.</p><br>
<p>Triglav&#39;s height was first measured on 23 September 1808 by Valentin Stanič. The first map its name appeared on written as Triglav was Zemljovid Slovenske dežele in pokrajin (Map of Slovene Lands and Provinces) by Peter Kosler, completed from 1848 until 1852 and published in Vienna in 1861.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, Triglav symbolically captured the primary drive by the Slovene resistance to the Fascist and Nazi armies. The Slovene Partisans wore the Triglav cap from 1942 until after 1944.</p><br>
<p>Triglav was the highest peak of the now defunct Yugoslavia; it was both countries highest and most prominent peak and, together with the southern Vardar River (now in Republic of Macedonia), was the symbol of Yugoslavian "brotherhood and unity".</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<h3>Aljaž Tower</h3><br>
<p>At the top of the mountain stands a small metal structure, the Aljaž Tower (Aljažev stolp). It acts as a storm shelter and a triangulation point. Along with Triglav, it is also a landmark of Slovenia and a symbol of the Slovenes and Slovene territorial sovereignty.</p><br>
<p>The tower&#39;s namesake was the priest, mountaineer and patriot Jakob Aljaž. In early 1895, he drew up, with a piece of chalk on the floor of his room in the parish of Dovje, plans for a cylindrical tower with a flag on its top. In April that year he purchased the summit of Triglav for the sum of one Austro-Hungarian gulden. Having done so, he secured himself the right to erect a building on the mountain top. The tower was constructed from iron and zinc coated sheet steel by Anton Belec from Šentvid near Ljubljana. He and four workers brought the parts of the tower to the summit of Triglav and put the tower together in only five hours on 7 August 1895. The opening took place that same day. Aljaž donated the shelter to the Slovene Alpine Society.</p><br>
<p>In the beginning, there were three four-legged chairs, a summit register, a spirit stove, and the image Triglav Panorama by Marko Pernhart in the tower. It was later repainted and renovated several times by Alojz Knafelc and others. In the Communist era, as the highest point of the former Yugoslavia, it was painted red and decorated with a red star. However, it has now more or less been restored to its original appearance. The star was removed shortly before the dissolution of Yugoslavia. On the proclamation of Slovene independence in June 1991, the flag of Slovenia was raised on top of the tower.</p><br>
<h3>Stanič Shelter</h3><br>
<p>in 1895, due to lack of space, Aljaž also commissioned the building of Stanič Shelter. It is located 55 m under the top of Triglav and is named after the poet and mountaineer Valentin Stanič. The shelter has the dimensions of 2.4 * and has room for 8 people sitting or 16 standing. Originally it also had a wooden door, banks, a table and a chair. Its significance diminished after the Kredarica Lodge was erected in 1896.</p><br>
<h3>Triglav Glacier</h3><br>
<p>The Triglav Glacier (Triglavski ledenik) is located below the summit on the karstified Triglav Plateaus (Triglavski podi), part of the northeastern side of the mountain. Covering over 40 hectare at the end of the 19th century, the glacier had shrunk to 15 hectare by 1946, and after further shrinkage had fallen into two parts by 1992. It now covers an area of only 1–3 hectares, depending on the season.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural significance</h2><br>
<h3>Folk literature</h3><br>
<p>The Triglav area is the setting of an old Slovene folk tale concerning a hunter seeking a treasure guarded by an enchanted chamois buck named Zlatorog (Goldhorn, after its golden horns).</p><br>
<h3>Arts</h3><br>
<p>The earliest known depiction of Triglav is on the front page of the work Oryctographia Carniolica, written by Belsazar Hacquet. It was a copper engraving made in 1778 by C. Conti after a drawing by Franz Xaver Baraga. Among later visual artists who depicted Triglav, the most well known are Anton Karinger (1829–1870) from Ljubljana, Marko Pernhart (1824–1871) from Klagenfurt, Valentin Hodnik (1896–1935) from Stara Fužina, Edo Deržaj (1904–1980) from Ljubljana, and more recently Marjan Zaletel (born 1945), living in Ljubljana.</p><br>
<p>Among the musical works related to Triglav, a special place is held for the poem Oh, Triglav, My Home (Oj, Triglav, moj dom). It was written in 1894 by the priest and poet Matija Zemljič and quickly became very popular among Slovene mountaineers. In 2007, its first stanza, accompanied by a melody of Jakob Aljaž, became the official anthem of the Alpine Association of Slovenia. An instrumental version of the poem, written by Bojan Adamič, is part of the start and end credits of the annual ski jumping broadcasts from Planica.</p><br>
<p>The first Slovene-language full-length film, recorded in 1931 by Janko Ravnik, was titled In the Kingdom of the Goldhorn (V kraljestvu Zlatoroga) and features an ascent by a group of students to the top of Triglav. The second Slovene full-length film, recorded the following year, was titled The Slopes of Mount Triglav (Triglavske strmine). It was directed by Ferdo Delak and was a romantic story featuring a wedding on the top of Triglav.</p><br>
<p>Since 1968, Triglav has become a theme of avant-garde artists. The first instance was a manifestation by the art group OHO, called Mount Triglav, which took place in December 1968 at Ljubljana&#39;s Congress Square. In 2004, the group IRWIN produced a series of paintings named Like to Like/ Mount Triglav. In 2007, an artistic performance was held atop Mount Triglav by the artists Janez Janša (director), Janez Janša (visual artist) and Janez Janša (performance artist) called Mount Triglav on Mount Triglav.</p><br>
<h3>National symbol</h3><br>
<p>A stylized depiction of Triglav&#39;s distinctive shape is the central element of the Slovene coat of arms, designed by the sculptor Marko Pogačnik, and is in turn featured on the flag of Slovenia. Slovenia is the only country in Europe and one of the few in the world to feature a mountain on its coat-of-arms. Formerly, it was featured on the coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia.</p><br>
<p>The first to depict Triglav as the symbol of the Slovenes was the architect Jože Plečnik, who in 1934 put it besides other coats-of-arms of the nations of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on the coat of the statue of the Mother of God in front of the parish church in Bled.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the stylised Triglav was the symbol of the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation resistance movement. The distinctive three-pronged caps worn by Slovene Partisans during World War II were known as triglavkas.</p><br>
<p>A relief map of the mountain is the design on the national side of the Slovene 50 eurocent coin.</p><br>
<p>The former Slovene president Milan Kučan once proclaimed that it is a duty of every Slovenian person to climb Triglav at least once in their lifetime.</p><br>
<p>Tell Abu Hureyra  is an archaeological site in the Euphrates valley in modern Syria. The remains of the villages within the tell come from over 4,000 years of pre-ceramic habitation spanning the Epipaleolithic and Neolithic periods. Ancient Abu Hureyra was occupied between 13,000 and 9,000 years ago in radio carbon years. The site is significant because the inhabitants of Abu Hureyra started out as hunter-gatherers, but gradually moved to farming, making them the earliest known farmers in the world.</p><br>
<h2>History of research</h2><br>
<p>The site was excavated as a rescue operation before it was flooded by Lake Assad, the reservoir of the Tabqa Dam which was being built at that time. The site was excavated by Andrew Moore in 1972 and 1973. It was limited to only two seasons of fieldwork. However, despite the limited time frame, a large amount of material was recovered and studied over the following decades. It was one of the first archaeological sites to use modern methods of excavation such as "flotation", which preserved even the tiniest and most fragile plant remains. A preliminary report was published in 1983 and a final report in 2000.</p><br>
<h2>Location and description</h2><br>
<p>Abu Hureyra is a tell, or ancient settlement mound, in modern-day Raqqa Governorate in northern Syria. It is on a plateau near the south bank of the Euphrates, 120 km east of Aleppo. The tell is a massive accumulation of collapsed houses, debris, and lost objects accumulated over the course of the habitation of the ancient village. The mound is nearly 500 m across, 8 m deep, and contained over 1,000,000 m&sup3; of archaeological deposits. Today the tell is inaccessible, drowned beneath the waters of Lake Assad.</p><br>
<h2>Occupation history</h2><br>
<h3>First occupation</h3><br>
<p>The village of Abu Hureyra had two separate periods of occupation: An Epipalaeolithic settlement and a Neolithic settlement. The Epipaleolithic, or Natufian, settlement was established c. 13,500 years ago. During the first settlement, the village consisted of small round huts, cut into the soft sandstone of the terrace. The roofs were supported with wooden posts, and roofed with brushwood and reeds. Huts contained underground storage areas for food. The inhabitants are probably most accurately described as "hunter-collectors", as they didn&#39;t only forage for immediate consumption, but built up stores for longterm food security. They settled down around their larder to protect it from animals and other humans. From the distribution of wild food plant remains found at Abu Hureyra it seems that they lived there year-round. The population was small, housing a few hundred people at most—but perhaps the largest collection of people permanently living in one place anywhere at that time.</p><br>
<p>The inhabitants of Abu Hureyra obtained food by hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild plants. Gazelle was hunted primarily during the summer, when vast herds passed by the village during their annual migration. These would probably be hunted communally, as mass killings also required mass processing of meat, skin, and other parts of the animal. The huge amount of food obtained in a short period was a reason for settling down permanently: it was too heavy to carry and would need to be kept protected from weather and pests.</p><br>
<p>Other prey included large wild animals such as onager, sheep, and cattle, and smaller animals such as hare, fox, and birds, which were hunted throughout the year. Different plant species were collected, from three different eco-zones within walking distance (river, forest, and steppe). Plant foods were also harvested from "wild gardens" with species gathered including wild cereal grasses such as einkorn wheat, emmer wheat, and two varieties of rye. Several large stone tools for grinding grain were found at the site.</p><br>
<h3>Depopulation</h3><br>
<p>After 1,300 years the hunter-gatherers of the first occupation mostly abandoned Abu Hureyra, probably because of the Younger Dryas, an intense and relatively abrupt return to glacial climate conditions which lasted over 1,000 years. The drought disrupted the migration of the gazelle and destroyed forageable plant food sources. It is likely that most of the inhabitants had to give up sedentism and return to nomadism, or they might have moved to Mureybet, just 50 km upstream on the other side of the Euphrates, which expanded dramatically at this time. It seems that a small population managed to hang on at Abu Hureyra.</p><br>
<h3>Second occupation</h3><br>
<p>It is from the early part of the Younger Dryas that the first indirect evidence of agriculture was detected in the excavations at Abu Hureyra, although the cereals themselves were still of the wild variety. It was during the intentional sowing of cereals in more favourable refuges like Mureybet that these first farmers developed domesticated strains during the centuries of drought and cold of the Younger Dryas. When the climate abated about 9500 BCE they spread all over the Middle East with this new bio-technology, and Abu Hureyra grew to a large village eventually with several thousand people. The second occupation grew domesticated varieties of rye, wheat and barley, and kept sheep as livestock. The hunting of gazelle decreased sharply, probably due to overexploitation that eventually left them extinct in the Middle East. At Abu Hureyra they were replaced by meat from domesticated animals. The second occupation lasted for about 2,000 years.</p><br>
<h2>Transition from foraging to farming</h2><br>
<p>Some evidence has been found for cultivation of rye from 11050 BCE It could have been an early experiment that didn&#39;t survive and continue. It has been suggested that drier climate conditions resulting from the beginning of the Younger Dryas caused wild cereals to become scarce, leading people to begin cultivation as a means of securing a food supply. Results of recent analysis of the rye grains from this level suggest that they may actually have been domesticated during the Epipalaeolithic. It is speculated that the permanent population of the first occupation was fewer than 200 individuals. These individuals occupied several tens of square kilometers, a rich resource base of several different ecosystems. On this land they hunted, harvested food and wood, made charcoal, and may have cultivated cereals and grains for food and fuel.</p><br>
<p>Lake Baikal  is a rift lake in Russia, located in southern Siberia, between Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast.</p><br>
<p>Lake Baikal is the largest freshwater lake by volume in the world, containing 22–23% of the world&#39;s fresh surface water. &mdash; at 25 million years. It is the seventh-largest lake in the world by surface area.</p><br>
<p>Like Lake Tanganyika, Lake Baikal was formed as an ancient rift valley, having the typical long crescent shape with a surface area of 31,722 km&sup2;. Baikal is home to thousands of species of plants and animals, many of which exist nowhere else in the world. The lake was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. It is also home to Buryat tribes who reside on the eastern side of Lake Baikal, rearing goats, camels, cattle, and sheep, where the mean temperature varies from a winter minimum of -19 &deg;C to a summer maximum of 14 &deg;C.</p><br>
<p>The region to the east of Lake Baikal is referred to as Transbaikalia, and the loosely defined region of the lake is sometimes known as Baikalia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and hydrography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Baikal is in a rift valley, created by the Baikal Rift Zone, where the Earths crust is slowly pulling apart. At 636 km long and 79 km wide, Lake Baikal has the largest surface area of any freshwater lake in Asia, at 31,722 km&sup2, and is the deepest lake in the world at 1,642 m. The bottom of the lake is 1,186.5 m below sea level, but below this lies some 7 km of sediment, placing the rift floor some 8 - below the surface: the deepest continental rift on Earth. In geological terms, the rift is young and active—it widens about 2 cm (0.79 in) per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; hot springs occur in the area and notable earthquakes happen every few years. The lake is divided into three basins: North, Central, and South, with depths about 900 m, 1,600 m, and 1,400 m, respectively. Fault-controlled accommodation zones rising to depths about 300 m separate the basins. The North and Central basins are separated by Academician Ridge, while the area around the Selenga Delta and the Buguldeika Saddle separates the Central and South basins. The lake drains into the Angara tributary of the Yenisei. Notable landforms include Cape Ryty on Baikals northwest coast.</p><br>
<p>Baikal&#39;s age is estimated at 25 million years, making it the most ancient lake in geological history. It is unique among large, high-latitude lakes, as its sediments have not been scoured by overriding continental ice sheets. Russian, USA, and Japanese cooperative studies of deep-drilling core sediments in the 1990s provide a detailed record of climatic variation over the past 6.7 million years. Longer and deeper sediment cores are expected in the near future. Lake Baikal is the only confined freshwater lake in which direct and indirect evidence of gas hydrates exists.</p><br>
<p>The lake is completely surrounded by mountains. The Baikal Mountains on the north shore, the Barguzin Range on the northeastern shore, and the taiga are technically protected as a national park. It contains 27 islands; the largest, Olkhon, is 72 km long and is the third-largest lake-bound island in the world. The lake is fed by as many as 330 inflowing rivers. The main ones draining directly into Baikal are the Selenga River, the Barguzin River, the Upper Angara River, the Turka River, the Sarma River, and the Snezhnaya River. It is drained through a single outlet, the Angara River.</p><br>
<p>Despite its great depth, the lake&#39;s waters are well-mixed and well-oxygenated throughout the water column, compared to the stratification that occurs in such bodies of water as Lake Tanganyika and the Black Sea.</p><br>
<h3>Water temperature</h3><br>
<p>In Lake Baikal, the water temperature varies significantly depending on location, depth and time of the year. During the winter and spring, the surface freezes and for 4–5 months, from early January to May–June (latest in the north), the entire lake surface is covered in ice. On average, the ice reaches a thickness of 0.5 to 1.4 m, but in some places with hummocks it can be more than 2 m. After the surface ice breaks up, the surface water is slowly warmed up by the sun, and in June the upper circa 300 m becomes homothermic (same temperature throughout) because of water mixing. During this time the pattern is inverted compared to the winter and spring, as the water temperature falls with increasing depth. As the autumn begins, the surface temperature falls again and a second homothermic period of the upper circa 300 m occurs in November. In the deepest parts of the lake, from about 300 m, the temperature is very stable at 3.1-3.4 &deg;C with only minor annual variations. At some locations, hydrothermal vents with water that can be about 50 &deg;C have been found. These are mostly in deep water, but locally have also been found in relatively shallow water. They have very little effect on the lake&#39;s temperature because of its huge volume.</p><br>
<p>Baikal-S1999276045323.pngLake Baikal as seen from the OrbView-2 satellite</p><br>
<p>Ice Melting on Lake Baikal - NASA Earth Observatory.jpgSpring ice melt underway on Lake Baikal, on 4 May. Notice the ice-covered north, while much of the south already is ice-free</p><br>
<p>Circles in Thin Ice, Lake Baikal, Russia.jpgCircle of thin ice, diameter of 4.4 km at the lake&#39;s southern tip, probably caused by convection</p><br>
<p>Selenga delta.jpgDelta of the Selenga River, Baikal&#39;s main tributary</p><br>
<p>26 swiatoinos.jpgMountains seen from the banks of Baikal</p><br>
<h2>Fauna and flora</h2><br>
<p>Lake Baikal is rich in biodiversity. It hosts more than 1,000 species of plants and 2,500 species of animals based on current knowledge, but the actual figures for both groups are believed to be significantly higher. More than 80% of the animals are endemic.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The watershed of Lake Baikal has numerous floral species represented. The marsh thistle (Cirsium palustre) is found here at the eastern limit of its geographic range.</p><br>
<p>Submerged macrophytic vascular plants are mostly absent, except in some shallow bays along the shores of Lake Baikal. More than 85 species of submerged macrophytes have been recorded, including genera such as Ceratophyllum, Myriophyllum, Potamogeton and Sparganium. The invasive species Elodea canadensis was introduced to the lake in the 1950s. Instead of vascular plants, aquatic flora is often dominated by several green algae species, notably Draparnaldioides, Tetraspora and Ulothrix in water shallower than 20 m, although Aegagrophila, Cladophora and Draparnaldioides may occur deeper than 30 m. Except for Ulothrix, there are endemic Baikal species in all these green algae genera. More than 400 diatom species, both benthic and planktonic, are found in the lake and about half of these are endemic to Baikal; however significant taxonomic uncertainties remain for this group.</p><br>
<h3>Mammals</h3><br>
<p>The Baikal seal or nerpa (Pusa sibirica) is found throughout Lake Baikal. It is one of only three entirely freshwater seal populations in the world, the other two being subspecies of ringed seals.</p><br>
<p>A wide range of land mammals can be found in the habitats around the lake, such as brown bear, wolf, red fox, sable, stoat, moose, Siberian red deer, reindeer, Siberian roe deer, Siberian musk deer, wild boar, red squirrel, Siberian chipmunk, marmot, lemming and Alpine hare. Until the Early Middle Ages, the wisent (or European bison) was present near the lake, which was the easternmost part of its range.</p><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>There are fewer than 65 native fish species in the lake basin, but more than half of these are endemic. The families Abyssocottidae (deep-water sculpins), Comephoridae (golomyankas or Baikal oilfish), and Cottocomephoridae (Baikal sculpins) are entirely restricted to the lake basin. The golomyankas are the primary prey of the Baikal seal and represent the largest fish biomass in the lake. Beyond members of Cottoidea, there are few endemic fish species in the lake basin.</p><br>
<p>The most important local species for fisheries is the omul (Coregonus migratorius), an endemic whitefish. It is caught, smoked, and then sold widely in markets around the lake. Also, a second endemic whitefish inhabits the lake, C. baicalensis. The Baikal black grayling (Thymallus baicalensis), Baikal white grayling (T. brevipinnis), and Baikal sturgeon (Acipenser baerii baicalensis) are other important species with commercial value. They are also endemic to the Lake Baikal basin.</p><br>
<h3>Invertebrates</h3><br>
<p>The lake hosts a rich endemic fauna of invertebrates. Epischura baikalensis is endemic to Lake Baikal and the dominating zooplankton species there, making up 80 to 90% of total biomass.</p><br>
<p>Among the most diverse invertebrate groups are the amphipod crustaceans, freshwater snails, annelid worms, and turbellarian worms:</p><br>
<h4>Amphipod crustaceans</h4><br>
<p>More than 350 species and subspecies of amphipods are endemic to the lake. The "gigantism" of some Baikal amphipods, which has been compared to that seen in Antarctic amphipods, has been linked to the high level of dissolved oxygen in the lake. Among the "giants" are several species of spiny Acanthogammarus that are found at both shallow and large depths. These conspicuous and common amphipods are essentially carnivores (will also take detritus), and can reach a body length up to 7 cm.</p><br>
<h4>Snails and bivalves</h4><br>
<h4>Annelid, nematode and flat worms</h4><br>
<p>With almost 200 described species, including more than 160 endemics, the center of diversity for aquatic freshwater oligochaetes is Lake Baikal. A smaller number of other freshwater annelids are known: 13 species of leeches (Hirudinea) and four polychaetes. Most of the flat worms are predatory and some are relatively brightly marked. They are often very abundant in shallow waters where typically less than 2 cm long, but in deeper parts of the lake the largest, Baikaloplana valida, can reach up to 30 cm when outstretched.</p><br>
<h4>Sponges</h4><br>
<p>At least 18 species of sponges occur in the lake, including 14 species from the endemic family Lubomirskiidae (the remaining are from the non-endemic family Spongillidae). In the nearshore regions of Baikal, the largest benthic biomass is sponges. Most sponges in the lake are typically green when alive because of symbiotic chlorophytes (zoochlorella), but can also be brownish or yellowish.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Baikal area, sometimes known as Baikalia, has a long history of human habitation. An early known tribe in the area was the Kurykans, forefathers of two ethnic groups: the Buryats and the Yakuts.</p><br>
<p>Located in the former northern territory of the Xiongnu confederation, Lake Baikal is one site of the Han–Xiongnu War, where the armies of the Han dynasty pursued and defeated the Xiongnu forces from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. They recorded that the lake was a "huge sea" (hanhai) and designated it the North Sea (Běihǎi) of the semimythical Four Seas. The Kurykans, a Siberian tribe who inhabited the area in the sixth century, gave it a name that translates to "much water". Later on, it was called "natural lake" (Baygal nuur) by the Buryats and "rich lake" (Bay göl) by the Yakuts. Little was known to Europeans about the lake until Russia expanded into the area in the 17th century. The first Russian explorer to reach Lake Baikal was Kurbat Ivanov in 1643.</p><br>
<p>Russian expansion into the Buryat area around Lake Baikal in 1628–58 was part of the Russian conquest of Siberia. It was done first by following the Angara River upstream from Yeniseysk (founded 1619) and later by moving south from the Lena River. Russians first heard of the Buryats in 1609 at Tomsk. According to folktales related a century after the fact, in 1623, Demid Pyanda, who may have been the first Russian to reach the Lena, crossed from the upper Lena to the Angara and arrived at Yeniseysk.</p><br>
<p>Vikhor Savin (1624) and Maksim Perfilyev (1626 and 1627–28) explored Tungus country on the lower Angara. To the west, Krasnoyarsk on the upper Yenisei was founded in 1627. A number of ill-documented expeditions explored eastward from Krasnoyarsk. In 1628, Pyotr Beketov first encountered a group of Buryats and collected yasak (tribute) from them at the future site of Bratsk. In 1629, Yakov Khripunov set off from Tomsk to find a rumored silver mine. His men soon began plundering both Russians and natives. They were joined by another band of rioters from Krasnoyarsk, but left the Buryat country when they ran short of food. This made it difficult for other Russians to enter the area. In 1631, Maksim Perfilyev built an ostrog at Bratsk. The pacification was moderately successful, but in 1634, Bratsk was destroyed and its garrison killed. In 1635, Bratsk was restored by a punitive expedition under Radukovskii. In 1638, it was besieged unsuccessfully.</p><br>
<p>In 1638, Perfilyev crossed from the Angara over the Ilim portage to the Lena River and went downstream as far as Olyokminsk. Returning, he sailed up the Vitim River into the area east of Lake Baikal (1640) where he heard reports of the Amur country. In 1641, Verkholensk was founded on the upper Lena. In 1643, Kurbat Ivanov went further up the Lena and became the first Russian to see Lake Baikal and Olkhon Island. Half his party under Skorokhodov remained on the lake, reached the Upper Angara at its northern tip, and wintered on the Barguzin River on the northeast side.</p><br>
<p>In 1644, Ivan Pokhabov went up the Angara to Baikal, becoming perhaps the first Russian to use this route, which is difficult because of the rapids. He crossed the lake and explored the lower Selenge River. About 1647, he repeated the trip, obtained guides, and visited a Tsetsen Khan near Ulan Bator. In 1648, Ivan Galkin built an ostrog on the Barguzin River which became a center for eastward expansion. In 1652, Vasily Kolesnikov reported from Barguzin that one could reach the Amur country by following the Selenga, Uda, and Khilok Rivers to the future sites of Chita and Nerchinsk. In 1653, Pyotr Beketov took Kolesnikov&#39;s route to Lake Irgen west of Chita, and that winter his man Urasov founded Nerchinsk. Next spring, he tried to occupy Nerchensk, but was forced by his men to join Stephanov on the Amur. Nerchinsk was destroyed by the local Tungus, but restored in 1658.</p><br>
<p>The Trans-Siberian Railway was built between 1896 and 1902. Construction of the scenic railway around the southwestern end of Lake Baikal required 200 bridges and 33 tunnels. Until its completion, a train ferry transported railcars across the lake from Port Baikal to Mysovaya for a number of years. The lake became the site of the minor engagement between the Czechoslovak legion and the Red Army in 1918. At times during winter freezes, the lake could be crossed on foot—though at risk of frostbite and deadly hypothermia from the cold wind moving unobstructed across flat expanses of ice. In the winter of 1920, the Great Siberian Ice March occurred, when the retreating White Russian Army crossed frozen Lake Baikal. The wind on the exposed lake was so cold, many people died, freezing in place until spring thaw. Beginning in 1956, the impounding of the Irkutsk Dam on the Angara River raised the level of the lake by 1.4 m.</p><br>
<p>As the railway was built, a large hydrogeographical expedition headed by F.K. Drizhenko produced the first detailed contour map of the lake bed.</p><br>
<h2>Research</h2><br>
<p>Several organizations are carrying out natural research projects on Lake Baikal. Most of them are governmental or associated with governmental organizations. The Baikalian Research Centre is an independent research organization carrying out environmental educational and research projects at Lake Baikal.</p><br>
<p>In July 2008, Russia sent two small submersibles, Mir-1 and Mir-2, to descend 1,592 m to the bottom of Lake Baikal to conduct geological and biological tests on its unique ecosystem. Although originally reported as being successful, they did not set a world record for the deepest freshwater dive, reaching a depth of only 1,580 m. That record is currently held by Anatoly Sagalevich, at 1,637 m (also in Lake Baikal aboard a Pisces submersible in 1990). Russian scientist and federal politician Artur Chilingarov, the leader of the mission, took part in the Mir dives as did Russian leader Vladimir Putin.</p><br>
<p>Since 1993, neutrino research has been conducted at the Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope (BDUNT). The Baikal Neutrino Telescope NT-200 is being deployed in Lake Baikal, 3.6 km from shore at a depth of 1.1 km. It consists of 192 optical modules (OMs).</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The lake, nicknamed "the Pearl of Siberia", drew investors from the tourist industry as energy revenues sparked an economic boom. Viktor Grigorov&#39;s Grand Baikal in Irkutsk is one of the investors, who planned to build three hotels, creating 570 jobs. In 2007, the Russian government declared the Baikal region a special economic zone. A popular resort in Listvyanka is home to the seven-story Hotel Mayak. At the northern part of the lake, Baikalplan (a German NGO) built together with Russians in 2009 the Frolikha Adventure Coastline Track, a 100 km-long long-distance trail as example for a sustainable development of the region. Baikal was also declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1996. Rosatom plans to build a laboratory near Baikal, in conjunction with an international uranium plant and to invest $2.5 billion in the region and create 2,000 jobs in the city of Angarsk.</p><br>
<p>Lake Baikal is a popular destination among tourists from all over the world. According to the Russian Federal State Statistics Service, in 2013, 79,179 foreign tourists visited Irkutsk and Lake Baikal; in 2014 - 146,937 visitors. The most popular places to stay by the lake are Listvyanka village, Olkhon island, Kotelnikovsky cape, Baykalskiy Priboi, resort Khakusy and Turka village. The popularity of Lake Baikal is growing from year to year, but there is no developed infrastructure in the area. For the quality of service and comfort from the visitor&#39;s point of view, Lake Baikal still has a long way to go.</p><br>
<p>The ice road to Olkhon island is the only legal ice road on Lake Baikal. The route is prepared by specialists every year and it opens when the ice conditions allow it. In 2015, the ice road to Olkhon was open from February 17 to March 23. The thickness of the ice on the road is approx. 60 cm, maximum capacity allowed – 10 t; it’s open for public from 9 am to 6 pm. The road through the lake is 12 km long and it goes from the village Kurkut on the mainland, to Irkutskaya Guba on Olkhon Island.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental concerns</h2><br>
<h3>Baykalsk Pulp and Paper Mill</h3><br>
<p>The Baykalsk Pulp and Paper Mill was constructed in 1966, directly on the shoreline, bleaching paper with chlorine and discharging waste into Baikal. After decades of protest, the plant was closed in November 2008 due to unprofitability. In March 2009, the plant owner announced the paper mill would never reopen. On 4 January 2010, production was resumed. On 13 January 2010, Vladimir Putin introduced changes in the legislation legalising the operation of the mill, which brought about a wave of protests of ecologists and local residents. This was based on Putin&#39;s visual verification from a minisubmarine, "I could see with my own eyes — and scientists can confirm — Baikal is in good condition and there is practically no pollution". In September 2013, the mill underwent a final bankruptcy, with the last 800 workers slated to lose their jobs by 28 December 2013. On 28 December 2013 the Russian Government decided to build a Russian Nature Reserves Expo Center on the place of the paper mill.</p><br>
<h3>Planned East Siberia-Pacific Ocean oil pipeline</h3><br>
<p>Russian oil pipelines state company Transneft was planning to build a trunk pipeline that would have come within 800 m of the lake shore in a zone of substantial seismic activity. Environmental activists in Russia, Greenpeace, Baikal pipeline opposition and local citizens were strongly opposed to these plans, due to the possibility of an accidental oil spill that might cause significant damage to the environment. According to the Transneft&#39;s president, numerous meetings with citizens near the lake were held in towns along the route, especially in Irkutsk. It was not until Russian president Vladimir Putin ordered the company to consider an alternative route 40 km to the north to avoid such ecological risks that Transneft agreed to alter its plans. Transneft has since decided to move the pipeline away from Lake Baikal, so that it will not pass through any federal or republic natural reserves. Work began on the pipeline, two days after President Putin agreed to changing the route away from Lake Baikal.</p><br>
<h3>Proposed nuclear enrichment plant</h3><br>
<p>In 2006, the Russian government announced plans to build the worlds first International Uranium Enrichment Centre at an existing nuclear facility in Angarsk, 95 km from the lakes shores. Critics and environmentalists argue it would be a disaster for the region and are urging the government to reconsider.</p><br>
<p>After enrichment, only 10% of the uranium-derived radioactive material would be exported to international customers, leaving 90% near the Lake Baikal region for storage. Uranium tailings contain radioactive and toxic materials, which if improperly stored, are potentially dangerous to humans and can contaminate rivers and lakes.</p><br>
<h3>Other pollution sources</h3><br>
<p>According to The Moscow Times and Vice (magazine), an increasing amount of an invasive species of algae thrives in the lake from hundreds of tons of liquid waste, including fuel and excrement, regularly disposed into the lake by tourist sites, and up to 25,000 tons of liquid waste disposed every year by local ships.</p><br>
<h2>Historical traditions</h2><br>
<p>The first European to reach the lake is said to have been Kurbat Ivanov in 1643.</p><br>
<p>In the past, the Baikal was referred to by many Russians as the "Baikal Sea" (Море Байкал, More Baikal), rather than merely "Lake Baikal" (Озеро Байкал, Ozero Baikal).</p><br>
<p>This usage is attested already in the Life of Protopope Avvakum (1621–1682), and on the late-17th-century maps by Semyon Remezov. It is also attested in the famous song, now passed into the tradition, that opens with the words Славное море, священный Байкал (Glorious sea, sacred Bajkal).</p><br>
<p>To this day, the strait between the western shore of the Lake and the Olkhon Island is called Maloye More (Малое Море), i.e. "the Little Sea".</p><br>
<p>Lake Baikal is nicknamed "Older sister of Sister Lakes (Lake Khövsgöl and Lake Baikal)".</p><br>
<p>According to 19th-century traveler T. W. Atkinson, locals in the Lake Baikal Region had the tradition that Christ visited the area:</p><br>
<p>The people have a tradition in connection with this region which they implicitly believe. They say "that Christ visited this part of Asia and ascended this summit, whence he looked down on all the region around. After blessing the country to the northward, he turned towards the south, and looking across the Baikal, he waved his hand, exclaiming Beyond this there is nothing." Thus they account for the sterility of Daouria, where it is said "no corn will grow."</p><br>
<p>Lake Baikal has been celebrated in several Russian folk songs. Two of these songs are well known in Russia and its neighboring countries, such as Japan.</p><br>
<p>"Glorious Sea, Sacred Baikal" (in Славное Mope, Священный Байкал) is about a katorga fugitive. The lyrics as documented and edited in the 19th century by Dmitriy P. Davydov (1811–1888). See "Barguzin River" for sample lyrics.</p><br>
<p>"The Wanderer" (in Бродяга) is about a convict who had escaped from jail and was attempting to return home from Transbaikal. The lyrics were collected and edited in the 20th century by Ivan Kondratyev.</p><br>
<p>The latter song was a secondary theme song for the Soviet Union&#39;s second color film, Ballad of Siberia (1947; in Сказание о земле Сибирской).</p><br>
<p>The Yenisei ; Buryat: Горлог мүрэн, Gorlog müren; Tyvan: Улуг-Хем, Uluğ-Hem; Khakas: Ким суг, Kim sug also Romanized Yenisey, Enisei, Jenisej, is the largest river system flowing to the Arctic Ocean. It is the central of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean . Rising in Mongolia, it follows a northerly course to the Yenisei Gulf in the Kara Sea, draining a large part of central Siberia, the longest stream following the Yenisei-Angara-Selenga-Ider river system.</p><br>
<p>The maximum depth of the Yenisei is 80 ft and the average depth is 45 ft. The depth of river outflow is 106 ft and inflow is 101 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Course of the river</h2><br>
<p>The river flows through Tuva, Khakassia, and the city of Krasnoyarsk.</p><br>
<p>Its tributaries include the Angara, Nizhnyaya Tunguska, Podkamennaya Tunguska, and Tuba rivers.</p><br>
<h2>Lake Baikal</h2><br>
<p>The 320 km, partly navigable Upper Angara River feeds into the northern end of Lake Baikal from the Buryat Republic but the largest inflow is from the Selenga which forms a delta on the south-eastern side.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Yenisei River basin (excluding Lake Baikal and lakes of the Khantayka River headwaters) is home to 55 native fish species, including two endemics: Gobio sibiricus (a gobionine cyprinid) and (a grayling). The grayling is restricted to Khövsgöl Nuur and its tributaries. Most fish found in the Yenisei River basin are relatively widespread Euro-Siberian or Siberian species, such as northern pike (Esox lucius), common roach (Rutilus rutilus), common dace (Leuciscus leuciscus), Siberian sculpin (Cottus poecilopus), European perch (Perca fluviatilis) and Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio). The basin is also home to many salmonids (trout, whitefish, charr, graylings, taimen and relatives) and the Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii).</p><br>
<p>The Yenisei River valley is habitat for numerous flora and fauna, with Siberian pine and Siberian larch being notable tree species. In prehistoric times Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris, was abundant in the Yenisei River valley circa 6000 BC. There are also numerous bird species present in the watershed, including, for example, the hooded crow, Corvus cornix.</p><br>
<h3>Taimyr reindeer herd</h3><br>
<p>The Taimyr reindeer herd, a migrating tundra reindeer (R.t. sibiricus), the largest reindeer herd in the world, migrated to winter grazing ranges along the Yenisei River.</p><br>
<h2>Navigation</h2><br>
<p>The first team to navigate the Yenisei&#39;s entire length, including its violent upper tributary in Mongolia, was an Australian-Canadian effort completed in September 2001. Ben Kozel, Tim Cope, Colin Angus and Remy Quinter were on this team. Both Kozel and Angus wrote books detailing this expedition, and a documentary was produced for National Geographic Television.</p><br>
<p>A canal inclined plane was built on the river in 1985 at the Krasnoyarsk Dam.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Nomadic tribes such as the Ket people and the Yugh people have lived along the banks of the Yenisei river since ancient times, and this region is the location of the Yeniseian language family. The Ket, numbering about 1000, are the only survivors today of those who originally lived throughout central southern Siberia near the river banks. Their extinct relatives included the Kotts, Assans, Arins, Baikots, and Pumpokols who lived further upriver to the south. The modern Ket lived in the eastern middle areas of the river before being assimilated politically into Russia during the 17th through 19th centuries.</p><br>
<p>Wheat from the Yenisei was sold by Muslims and Uighurs during inadequate harvests to Bukhara and Soghd during the Tahirid era.</p><br>
<p>Russians first reached the upper Yenisei in 1605, travelling from the Ob River, up the Ket River, portaging and then down the Yenisei as far as the Sym River.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire agreed to divide Asia along a line that followed the Yenisei River to the border of China, and then along the border of China and the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<h2>Pollution</h2><br>
<p>Studies have shown that the Yenisey suffers from contamination caused by radioactive discharges from a factory that produced bomb-grade plutonium in the secret city of Krasnoyarsk-26, now known as Zheleznogorsk.</p><br>
<p>The Vaalserberg is a hill with a height of 322.4 metres  above NAP and the highest point in mainland Netherlands. The Vaalserberg is located in the province of Limburg, at the south-easternmost edge of the country, near the town of Vaals .</p><br>
<p>After the Dutch possessions in the Caribbean were incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Vaalserberg was replaced as the Netherlands&#39; highest mountain by Mount Scenery.</p><br>
<h2>Three-Country Point</h2><br>
<p>The Vaalserberg is also the location of the tripoint between Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, and its summit is therefore called the Drielandenpunt ("three country point") in Dutch, or Dreiländereck ("three country corner") in German, or Trois Frontières ("three borders") in French.</p><br>
<p>On the Belgian side, the tripoint borders the region of Wallonia, including both the regular French-speaking area and the very small German-speaking area. Between 1830 and 1919, the summit was a quadripoint, also bordering Neutral Moresnet - today part of Belgium&#39;s German speaking areas.</p><br>
<p>The current Belgian-German-border is not the same as the former eastern border of Moresnet with Prussia; it lies a little more to the east. Therefore, five different borders came together at this point, however never more than four at one time - except possibly for the period 1917-1920, when the border situation was unclear and disputed.</p><br>
<p>This border intersection has made the Vaalserberg a well-known tourist attraction in the Netherlands with a tower on the Belgian side (Boudewijntoren; Tour Baudouin) offering a grand panorama of the surrounding landscape.</p><br>
<h2>Four-borders road</h2><br>
<p>The road leading up to this point on the Dutch side is called the Viergrenzenweg ("four borders way"), probably because of the territory of Moresnet. The names of the roads in Belgium (Route des Trois Bornes) and Germany (Dreiländerweg) only refer to three.</p><br>
<h2>Road cycling</h2><br>
<p>The Vaalserberg is often used in the Amstel Gold Race and is climbed halfway through the race. The climb is named in the roadbook of the Gold Race as Drielandenpunt and is followed by the Gemmenich climb.</p><br>
<p>Einkorn wheat  can refer either to the wild species of wheat, Triticum boeoticum, or to the domesticated form, Triticum monococcum. The wild and domesticated forms are either considered separate species, as here, or as subspecies: Triticum monococcum subsp. boeoticum  and T. monococcum subsp. monococcum . Einkorn is a diploid species  of hulled wheat, with tough glumes  that tightly enclose the grains. The cultivated form is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger. The domestic form is known as petit épeautre in French, Einkorn in German, einkorn or littlespelt in English, piccolo farro in Italian and escanda menor in Spanish.</p><br>
<p>Einkorn wheat was one of the first plants to be domesticated and cultivated. The earliest clear evidence of the domestication of einkorn dates from 10,600 to 9,900 years before present (8,650 BC to 7,950 BC) from Çayönü and Cafer Höyük, two Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B archaeological sites in southern Turkey. Remnants of einkorn have been found with the iceman mummy Ötzi.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Einkorn wheat commonly grows wild in the hill country in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia although it has a wider distribution reaching into the Balkans and south to Jordan near the Dead Sea. It is a short variety of wild wheat, usually less than 70 cm tall and is not very productive of edible seeds.</p><br>
<p>The principal difference between wild einkorn and cultivated einkorn is the method of seed dispersal. In the wild variety the seed head usually shatters and drops the kernels (seeds) of wheat onto the ground. This facilitates a new crop of wheat. In the domestic variety, the seed head remains intact. While such a mutation may occasionally occur in the wild, it is not viable there in the long term: the intact seed head will only drop to the ground when the stalk rots, and the kernels will not scatter but form a tight clump which inhibits germination and makes the mutant seedlings susceptible to disease. But harvesting einkorn with intact seed heads was easier for early human harvesters, who could then manually break apart the seed heads and scatter any kernels not eaten. Over time and through selection, conscious or unconscious, the human preference for intact seed heads created the domestic variety, which also has slightly larger kernels than wild einkorn. Domesticated einkorn thus requires human planting and harvesting for its continuing existence. This process of domestication might have taken only 20 to 200 years with the end product a wheat easier for humans to harvest.</p><br>
<p>Einkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, alongside emmer wheat (T. dicoccum). Hunter gatherers in the Fertile Crescent may have started harvesting einkorn as long as 30,000 years ago, according to archaeological evidence from Syria. Although gathered from the wild for thousands of years, einkorn wheat was first domesticated approximately 10,000 years BP in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) or B (PPNB) periods. Evidence from DNA fingerprinting suggests einkorn was first domesticated near Karaca Dağ in southeast Turkey, an area in which a number of PPNB farming villages have been found.</p><br>
<p>An important characteristic facilitating the domestication of einkorn and other annual grains is that the plants are largely self-pollinating. Thus, the desirable (for human management) traits of einkorn could be perpetuated at less risk of cross-fertilization with wild plants which might have traits—e.g. smaller seeds, shattering seed heads, etc. -- less desirable for human management.</p><br>
<p>From the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, the cultivation of einkorn wheat spread to the Caucasus, the Balkans, and central Europe. Einkorn wheat was more commonly grown in cooler climates than emmer wheat, the other domesticated wheat. Cultivation of einkorn in the Middle East began to decline in favor of emmer wheat around 2000 BC. Cultivation of einkorn was never extensive in Italy, southern France, and Spain. Einkorn continued to be cultivated in some areas of northern Europe throughout the Middle Ages and until the early part of the 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>Einkorn vs. common modern wheat varieties</h2><br>
<p>Einkorn wheat is low-yielding but can survive on poor, dry, marginal soils where other varieties of wheat will not. It is primarily eaten boiled in whole grains or in porridge. Its flour lacks the rising characteristics desirable for bread.</p><br>
<p>Einkorn, as with other ancient varieties of wheat, is grouped with "the covered wheats" as its kernels do not break free from its seed coat (glume) with threshing and it is, therefore, difficult to separate the husk from the seed.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>Einkorn is a popular food in northern Provence (France). It is also used for bulgur or as animal feed in mountainous areas of France, India, Italy, Morocco, the former Yugoslavia, Turkey and other countries.</p><br>
<h3>Nutrition and gluten intolerance</h3><br>
<p>Einkorn has a higher percentage of protein than modern red wheats and is considered more nutritious because it has also higher levels of fat, phosphorus, potassium, pyridoxine, and beta-carotene.</p><br>
<p>All species and hybrids of wheat are not suitable for people with gluten-related disorders, as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy.</p><br>
<h3>Salt-tolerance gene</h3><br>
<p>Australian scientists have succeeded in breeding the salt-tolerance feature of T. monococcum into durum wheat.</p><br>
<p>The Sayan Mountains  are a mountain range in southern Siberia, Russia  and northern Mongolia. In the past, it served as the border between Mongolia and Russia.</p><br>
<p>The Eastern Sayan extends 1,000 km from the Yenisei River at 92° E to the southwest end of Lake Baikal at 106° E. The Western Sayan forms the eastern continuation of the Altay Mountains, stretching for 500 km from 89° E to the middle of the Eastern Sayan at 96° E.</p><br>
<p>The Sayan Mountains&#39; towering peaks and cool lakes southwest of Tuva give rise to the tributaries that merge to become one of Siberia&#39;s major rivers, the Yenisei River, which flows north over 2000 miles to the Arctic Ocean. This is a protected and isolated area, having been kept closed by the Soviet Union since 1944.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>While the general elevation is 2000 to 2,700 m, granites and metamorphic slates reach altitudes of over 3,000 m, with the highest being Mönkh Saridag at 3,492 m. The principal mountain passes lie 1800 to 2,300 m above the sea, for example Muztagh pass at 2,280 m, Mongol pass at 1,980 m, Tenghyz pass at 2,280 m and Obo-sarym pass at 1,860 m.</p><br>
<p>At 92°E the system (the Western Sayan) is pierced by the Ulug-Khem (Улуг-Хем) or Upper Yenisei River, and at 106°, at its eastern extremity, it terminates above the depression of the Selenga-Orkhon Valley. From the Mongolian plateau the ascent is on the whole gentle, but from the plains of Siberia it is much steeper, despite the fact that the range is masked by a broad belt of subsidiary ranges of an Alpine character, e.g. the Usinsk, Oya, Tunka and Kitoi ranges.</p><br>
<p>Between the breach of the Yenisei and Lake Khövsgöl at 100° 30&#39; E. the system bears also the name of Yerghik-taiga. The flora is on the whole poor, although the higher regions carry good forests of larch, pine, juniper, birch, and alder, with rhododendrons and species of Berberis and Ribes. Lichens and mosses clothe many of the boulders that are scattered over the upper slopes.</p><br>
<h2>The Ice Age in the Eastern Sayan Mountains and the Southern Trans-Baikal Mountains in Southern Siberia</h2><br>
<p>In this area that currently shows only small cirque glaciers, at glacial times glaciers have flowed down from the 3492 m high Munku Sardyk massif situated west of Lake Baikal and from the 12.100 km² extended completely glaciated granite-gneiss plateau (2300 m asl) of the East-Sayan mountains as well as the east-connected 2600 – 3110 m-high summits in the Tunkinskaya Dolina valley, joining to a c. 30 km-wide parent glacier. Its glacier tongue that flowed down to the east, to Lake Baikal, came to an end at 500 m asl (51°48’28.98”N/103°0’29.86”E). The Khamar Daban mountains were covered by a large-scale ice cap filling up the valley relief. From its valley heads, e.g. the upper Slujanka valley (51°32’N/103°37’E), but also through parallel valleys like the Snirsdaja valley, outlet glaciers flowed to the north to Lake Baikal. The Snirsdaja-valley-outlet glacier has calved, among other outlet glaciers, at c. 400 m asl into Lake Baikal (51°27’N/104°51’E). The glacial (Würm ice age=Last Glacial Period=MIS 2) glacier snowline (ELA) as altitude limit between glacier feeding area and ablation zone has run in these mountains between 1450 and 1250 m asl. This corresponds to a snowline depression of 1500 m against the current height of the snowline. Under the condition of a comparable precipitation ratio there might result from this a glacial depression of the average annual temperature of 7.5 to 9 °C for the Last Ice Age against today.</p><br>
<h2>Origins of reindeer husbandry</h2><br>
<p>According to Sev’yan I. Vainshtein Sayan reindeer herding "is the oldest form of reindeer herding" and is associated with the "earliest domestication of the reindeer by the Samoyedic taiga population" of the Sayan Mountains at the "turn of the first millenium A.D... The Sayan region was apparently the origin of the economic and cultural complex of reindeer hunters-herdsmen that we now see among the various Evenki groups and the peoples of the Sayan area." The Sayan ethnic groups still live almost exclusively in the area of the Eastern Sayan mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Science</h2><br>
<p>The Sayan Solar Observatory is located in these mountains ({{coord|51|37|18|N|100|55|07|E|type:mountain_region:RU|display=inline}}) at an altitude of 2,000 meters.</p><br>
<p>The Verkhoyansk Range  is a mountain range of eastern Siberia spanning roughly 1000 km  across the Sakha Republic. It forms a vast arc between the Lena and Aldan rivers to the west and the Yana River to the east. It rises to c. 2,480 m  in the south. There are coal, silver, lead, and zinc deposits located in the mountains. It lies just west of the boundary of the Eurasian and the North American tectonic plates.</p><br>
<p>The world&#39;s lowest temperatures for inhabited places have been recorded in this region, and there is quite deep snow cover for most of the year. During the Last Glacial Maximum the range contained extensive glaciers, and the scenery in the summer is typical of "alpine" mountains. The mountain range is home to an alpine tundra, supporting various species of mosses and lichens.</p><br>
<p>The mountains were formed by folding, and represent an anticline.</p><br>
<p>Sakhalin , previously also known as Karafuto, is a large Russian island in the North Pacific Ocean, lying between 45°50 and 54°24 N. It is Russia&#39;s largest island, and is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast. Sakhalin, which is similar in shape to and about one third the size of Honshu, is just off the east coast of Russia, and just north of Japan. The population was 497,973 as of the 2010 census, made up of mostly ethnic Russians and a smaller Korean community. The indigenous peoples of the island are the Ainu, Oroks and Nivkhs.</p><br>
<p>Sakhalin was claimed by both Russia and Japan over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. These disputes sometimes involved military conflict and divisions of the island between the two powers. Russia has held all of the island since seizing the Japanese portion in the final days of World War II in 1945; Japan no longer claims any of Sakhalin, although it does still claim the nearby South Kuril Islands. Most Ainu on Sakhalin moved to Hokkaido, only 43 km to the south, when the Japanese were displaced from the island in 1949.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The island is known in Russian as Сахалин (Sakhalin). In Chinese, it is known as Kuye. In Japanese, it is known as Karafuto or, borrowing the Russian appellation, as Saharin. The spelling Saghalien may be found in historical texts. Choka (or Tchoka) is another name found in the early literature and seems to have been the name used by the islanders themselves, but it is not clear whether these were the Gilyak or the Ainu.</p><br>
<p>The European names derive from misinterpretation of a Manchu name sahaliyan ula angga hada ("peak/craggy rock at the mouth of the Amur River"). Sahaliyan, the word that has been borrowed in the form of "Sakhalin", means "black" in Manchu, ula means "river" and sahaliyan ula (, "Black River") is the proper Manchu name of the Amur River. Its Japanese name, Karafuto, supposedly comes from Ainu kamuy kar put ya mosir (カム・カ・プ・ヤ・モシ, shortened to Karput カ・プ), which means "the island a god has created at the estuary (of the Amur River)". The name was used by the Japanese during their possession of its southern part (1905–1945).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>Sakhalin was inhabited in the Neolithic Stone Age. Flint implements such as those found in Siberia have been found at Dui and Kusunai in great numbers, as well as polished stone hatchets similar to European examples, primitive pottery with decorations like those of the Olonets, and stone weights used with fishing nets. A later population familiar with bronze left traces in earthen walls and kitchen-middens on Aniva Bay.</p><br>
<p>Among the indigenous people of Sakhalin are the Ainu in the southern half, the Oroks in the central region, and the Nivkhs in the north. Chinese chronicled the Xianbei and Hezhe tribes, who had a way of life based on fishing.</p><br>
<p>The Mongol Empire made some efforts to subjugate the native people of Sakhalin starting in about 1264 CE. According to Yuanshi, the official history of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols militarily subdued the Guwei (骨嵬, Gǔwéi), and by 1308, all inhabitants of Sakhalin had submitted to the Yuan. Chinese of the Ming dynasty knew the island as Kuyi (苦夷 Kǔyí) or Kuwu, and later as Kuye, as it is known today. There is some evidence that the Ming eunuch Admiral Yishiha reached Sakhalin in 1413 during one of his expeditions to the lower Amur, and granted Ming titles to a local chieftain. Under the Ming dynasty, commerce in Northeast Asia and Sakhalin was placed under the "system for subjugated peoples", or ximin tizhi. This suggests that the island was at least nominally under the administration of the Nurgan Regional Military Commission, which was established by Yishiha near today&#39;s village of Tyr on the Siberian mainland in 1411, and continued operating until the mid-1430s. A Ming boundary stone still exists on the island.</p><br>
<h3>European and Japanese exploration</h3><br>
<p>According to Wei Yuan&#39;s work Military history of the Qing dynasty, the Later Jin sent 400 troops to Sakhalin in 1616 in response to Japanese activity in the area, but later withdrew, judging there to be no major threat to their control of the island.</p><br>
<p>In an early colonization attempt, a Japanese settlement was established at Ootomari on Sakhalin&#39;s southern end in 1679. Cartographers of the Matsumae clan created a map of the island and called it "Kita-Ezo" (Northern Ezo, Ezo being the old name for the islands north of Honshu). The 1689 Nerchinsk Treaty between Russia and China, which defined the Stanovoy Mountains as their mutual border, made no explicit mention of the island; however, the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) did consider the island to be part of its territory, and enacted policies of a pattern similar to the previous Ming dynasty, which drew Sakhalin further into the "system for subjugated peoples". Local people were forced to pay tribute at Qing posts, and Qing officials sometimes granted titles to local elders, entrusting them with the task of "keeping the peace". By the mid-18th century, Qing officials had registered 56 surname groups; of these, Qing sources note that six clans and 148 households were those of Ainu and Nivkh who came under the Qing administrative umbrella. However, since the Chinese government did not have a military presence on the island, Japanese attempts at colonization continued.</p><br>
<p>The first European known to visit Sakhalin was Martin Gerritz de Vries, who mapped Cape Patience and Cape Aniva on the island&#39;s east coast in 1643. The Dutch captain, however, was unaware that it was an island, and 17th century maps usually showed these points (and often Hokkaido as well) as being part of the mainland.</p><br>
<p>As part of a nationwide Sino-French cartographic program, the Jesuits Jean-Baptiste Régis, Pierre Jartoux, and Xavier Ehrenbert Fridelli joined a Chinese team visiting the lower Amur (known to them under its Manchu name, Saghalien Ula, i.e. the "Black River"), in 1709, and learned of the existence of the nearby offshore island from the Ke tcheng natives of the lower Amur. The Jesuits were told that the islanders were believed to be good at reindeer husbandry. They reported that the mainlanders used a variety of names to refer to the island, but Saghalien anga bata (i.e. "the Island the mouth of the Black River") was the most common, while the name "Huye" (presumably, "Kuye", 庫頁), which they had heard in Beijing, was completely unknown to the locals.</p><br>
<p>The Jesuits did not have a chance to visit the island personally, and the geographical information provided by the Ke tcheng people and Manchus who had been to the island was insufficient to allow them to identify it as the land visited by de Vries in 1643. As a result, many 17th century maps showed a rather strangely shaped Sakhalin, which included only the northern half of the island (with Cape Patience), while Cape Aniva, discovered by de Vries, and the "Black Cape" (Cape Crillon) were thought to be part of the mainland.</p><br>
<p>It was not until the 1787 expedition of Jean-François de La Pérouse that the island began to resemble something of its true shape on European maps. Though unable to pass through its northern "bottleneck" due to contrary winds, La Perouse charted most of the Strait of Tartary, and islanders he encountered near today&#39;s Strait of Nevelskoy told him that the island was called "Tchoka" (or at least that is how he recorded the name in French), and it was used on some maps thereafter.</p><br>
<p>The Russian explorer Adam Johann von Krusenstern visited Sakhalin in 1805, but regarded it as a peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Alarmed by the visits of European powers, Japan proclaimed its sovereignty over the whole island in 1807. Most Japanese sources claim Mamiya Rinzō as the true discoverer of the Strait of Tartary, in 1809.</p><br>
<h3>Russo-Japanese rivalry</h3><br>
<p>On the basis of its belief that it was an extension of Hokkaido, both geographically and culturally, Japan again proclaimed sovereignty over the whole island (as well as the Kuril Islands chain) in 1845, in the face of competing claims from Russia. In 1849, however, the Russian navigator Gennady Nevelskoy recorded the existence and navigability of the strait later given his name, and — in defiance of the Qing and Japanese claims — Russian settlers began establishing coal mines, administration facilities, schools, and churches on the island.</p><br>
<p>In 1855, Russia and Japan signed the Treaty of Shimoda, which declared that nationals of both countries could inhabit the island: Russians in the north, and Japanese in the south, without a clearly defined boundary between. Russia also agreed to dismantle its military base at Ootomari. Following the Opium War, Russia forced China to sign the Treaty of Aigun (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860), under which China lost to Russia all claims to territories north of Heilongjiang (Amur) and east of Ussuri, including Sakhalin.</p><br>
<p>In 1857 the Russians established a penal colony. In 1890 the distinguished author Anton Chekhov visited the penal colony on Sakhalin and published a memoir of his journey.</p><br>
<p>Japan proclaimed its sovereignty over Sakhalin (which they called Karafuto) yet again in 1865, and the government built a stele announcing the claim at the northern extremity of the island. The island remained under shared sovereignty until the signing of the 1875 Treaty of Saint Petersburg, in which Japan surrendered its claims in Sakhalin to Russia in exchange for the Kuril Islands.</p><br>
<h3>Whaling</h3><br>
<p>Between 1848 and 1902, American whaleships hunted whales off Sakhalin. They cruised for bowhead and gray whales to the north and right whales to the east and south. On 7 June 1855, the ship Jefferson (396 tons), of New London, was wrecked on Cape Levenshtern, on the northeastern side of the island, during a fog. All hands were saved as well as 300 barrels of whale oil.</p><br>
<h3>Division</h3><br>
<p>Japanese forces invaded and occupied Sakhalin in the closing stages of the Russo-Japanese War. In accordance with the Treaty of Portsmouth of 1905, the southern part of the island below the 50th parallel north reverted to Japan, while Russia retained the northern three-fifths. In 1920, during the Siberian Intervention, Japan again occupied the northern part of the island, returning it to the Soviet Union in 1925.</p><br>
<p>South Sakhalin was administered by Japan as Karafuto Prefecture (Karafuto-chō), with the capital at Toyohara (today&#39;s Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk). A large number of migrants were brought in from Korea.</p><br>
<p>The northern, Russian, half of the island formed Sakhalin Oblast, with the capital at Aleksandrovsk-Sakhalinsky.</p><br>
<h3>Second World War</h3><br>
<p>In August 1945, after repudiating the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact, the Soviet Union invaded southern Sakhalin. The Soviet attack started on August 11, 1945, a few days before the surrender of Japan. The Soviet 56th Rifle Corps, part of the 16th Army, consisting of the 79th Rifle Division, the 2nd Rifle Brigade, the 5th Rifle Brigade and the 214 Armored Brigade, attacked the Japanese 88th Infantry Division. Although the Soviet Red Army outnumbered the Japanese by three to one, they advanced only slowly due to strong Japanese resistance. It was not until the 113th Rifle Brigade and the 365th Independent Naval Infantry Rifle Battalion from Sovetskaya Gavan landed on Tōro, a seashore village of western Karafuto on August 16 that the Soviets broke the Japanese defense line. Japanese resistance grew weaker after this landing. Actual fighting continued until August 21. From August 22 to August 23, most remaining Japanese units agreed to a ceasefire. The Soviets completed the conquest of Karafuto on August 25, 1945 by occupying the capital of Toyohara.</p><br>
<p>Of the approximately 400,000 people – mostly Japanese and Korean – who lived on South Sakhalin in 1944, about 100,000 were evacuated to Japan during the last days of the war. The remaining 300,000 stayed behind, some for several more years. While the vast majority of Sakhalin Japanese and Koreans were gradually repatriated between 1946 and 1950, tens of thousands of Sakhalin Koreans (and a number of their Japanese spouses) remained in the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<p>No final peace treaty has been signed and the status of four neighboring islands remains disputed. Japan renounced its claims of sovereignty over southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in the Treaty of San Francisco (1951), but maintains that the four offshore islands of Hokkaido currently administered by Russia were not subject to this renunciation. Japan has granted mutual exchange visas for Japanese and Ainu families divided by the change in status. Recently, economic and political cooperation has gradually improved between the two nations despite disagreements.</p><br>
<h3>Recent history</h3><br>
<p>On 1 September 1983, the Korean Air Flight 007, a South Korean civilian airliner, flew over Sakhalin and was shot down by the Soviet Union, just west of Sakhalin Island, near the smaller Moneron Island; the Soviet Union claimed it was a spy plane. All 269 passengers and crew died, including a USA Congressman, Larry McDonald.</p><br>
<p>On 27 May 1995, the 7.0 Neftegorsk earthquake shook the former Russian settlement of Neftegorsk with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). Total damage was $64.1–300 million, with 1,989 deaths and 750 injured. The settlement was not rebuilt.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Sakhalin is separated from the mainland by the narrow and shallow Strait of Tartary, which often freezes in winter in its narrower part, and from Hokkaido, (Japan) by the Soya Strait or La Pérouse Strait. Sakhalin is the largest island in Russia, being 948 km long, and 25 to 170 km wide, with an area of 72,492 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Its orography and geological structure are imperfectly known. One theory is that Sakhalin arose from the Sakhalin Island Arc. Nearly two-thirds of Sakhalin is mountainous. Two parallel ranges of mountains traverse it from north to south, reaching 600 –. The Western Sakhalin Mountains peak in Mount Ichara, 1,481 m, while the Eastern Sakhalin Mountainss highest peak, Mount Lopatin 1,609 m, is also the islands highest mountain. Tym-Poronaiskaya Valley separates the two ranges. Susuanaisky and Tonino-Anivsky ranges traverse the island in the south, while the swampy Northern-Sakhalin plain occupies most of its north.</p><br>
<p>Crystalline rocks crop out at several capes; Cretaceous limestones, containing an abundant and specific fauna of gigantic ammonites, occur at Dui on the west coast; and Tertiary conglomerates, sandstones, marls and clays, folded by subsequent upheavals, are found in many parts of the island. The clays, which contain layers of good coal and an abundant fossil vegetation, show that during the Miocene period, Sakhalin formed part of a continent which comprised north Asia, Alaska and Japan, and enjoyed a comparatively warm climate. The Pliocene deposits contain a mollusc fauna more Arctic than that which exists at the present time, indicating that the connection between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans was probably broader than it is now.</p><br>
<p>Main rivers: The Tym, 330 km long and navigable by rafts and light boats for 80 km, flows north and north-east with numerous rapids and shallows, and enters the Sea of Okhotsk. The Poronai River flows south-south-east to the Gulf of Patience or Shichiro Bay, on the south-east coast. Three other small streams enter the wide semicircular Gulf of Aniva or Higashifushimi Bay at the southern extremity of the island.</p><br>
<p>The northernmost point of Sakhalin is Cape of Elisabeth on the Schmidt Peninsula, while Cape Crillon is the southernmost point of the island.</p><br>
<p>Sakhalin has two smaller islands associated with it, Moneron Island and Ush Island. Moneron, the only land mass in the Tatar strait, 7.2 km long and 5.6 km wide, is about 24 nmi west from the nearest coast of Sakhalin and 41 nmi from the port city of Nevelsk. Ush Island is an island off of the northern coast of Sakhalin.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, some 32,000 Russians (of whom over 22,000 were convicts) inhabited Sakhalin along with several thousand native inhabitants. In 2010, the island&#39;s population was recorded at 497,973, 83% of whom were ethnic Russians, followed by about 30,000 Koreans (5.5%). Smaller minorities were Ukrainians, Tatars, Yakuts and Evenks. The native inhabitants consist of some 2,000 Nivkhs and 750 Oroks. The Nivkhs in the north support themselves by fishing and hunting. In 2008 there were 6,416 births and 7,572 deaths.</p><br>
<p>The administrative center of the oblast, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, a city of about 175,000, has a large Korean minority, typically referred to as Sakhalin Koreans, who were forcibly brought by the Japanese during World War II to work in the coal mines. Most of the population lives in the southern half of the island, centered mainly around Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk and two ports, Kholmsk and Korsakov (population about 40,000 each).</p><br>
<p>The 400,000 Japanese inhabitants of Sakhalin (including all indigenous Ainu) were deported following the invasion of the southern portion of the island by the Soviet Union in 1945 at the end of World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Sea of Okhotsk ensures Sakhalin has a cold and humid climate, ranging from humid continental (Köppen Dfb) in the south to subarctic (Dfc) in the centre and north. The maritime influence makes summers much cooler than in similar-latitude inland cities such as Harbin or Irkutsk, but makes the winters much more snowy and a few degrees warmer than in interior East Asian cities at the same latitude. Summers are foggy with little sunshine.</p><br>
<p>Precipitation is heavy, owing to the strong onshore winds in summer and the high frequency of North Pacific storms affecting the island in the autumn. It ranges from around 500 mm on the northwest coast to over 1,200 mm in southern mountainous regions. In contrast to interior east Asia with its pronounced summer maximum, onshore winds ensure Sakhalin has year-round precipitation with a peak in the autumn.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The whole of the island is covered with dense forests, mostly coniferous. The Yezo (or Yeddo) spruce (Picea jezoensis), the Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalinensis) and the Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii) are the chief trees; on the upper parts of the mountains are the Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila) and the Kurile bamboo (Sasa kurilensis). Birches, both Siberian silver birch (Betula platyphylla) and Erman&#39;s birch (B. ermanii), poplar, elm, bird cherry (Prunus padus), Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata) and several willows are mixed with the conifers; while farther south the maple, rowan and oak, as also the Japanese Panax ricinifolium, the Amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense), the Spindle (Euonymus macropterus) and the vine (Vitis thunbergii) make their appearance. The underwoods abound in berry-bearing plants (e.g. cloudberry, cranberry, crowberry, red whortleberry), red-berried elder (Sambucus racemosa), wild raspberry and Spiraea.</p><br>
<p>Bears, foxes, otters, and sables are numerous, as are reindeer in the north, and musk deer, hares, squirrels, rats, and mice everywhere. The bird fauna is mostly the common east Siberian, but there are some endemic or near-endemic breeding species, notably the endangered Nordmann&#39;s greenshank (Tringa guttifer) and the Sakhalin leaf warbler (Phylloscopus borealoides). The rivers swarm with fish, especially species of salmon (Oncorhynchus). Numerous whales visit the sea coast, including the critically endangered Western Pacific gray whale, for which the coast of Sakhalin is the only known feeding ground. Other endangered whale species known to occur in this area are the North Pacific right whale, the bowhead whale and the beluga whale.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<h3>Sea</h3><br>
<p>Transport, especially by sea, is an important segment of the economy. Nearly all the cargo arriving for Sakhalin (and the Kuril Islands) is delivered by cargo boats, or by ferries, in railway wagons, through the SSC train ferry from the mainland port of Vanino to Kholmsk. The ports of Korsakov and Kholmsk are the largest and handle all kinds of goods, while coal and timber shipments often go through other ports. In 1999, a ferry service was opened between the ports of Korsakov and Wakkanai, Japan, and operated through the autumn of 2015, when service was suspended.</p><br>
<p>For the 2016 summer season, this route will be serviced by a high-speed catamaran ferry from Singapore named Penguin 33. The ferry is owned by and operated by.</p><br>
<p>Sakhalins main shipping company is Sakhalin Shipping Company, headquartered in Kholmsk on the islands west coast.</p><br>
<h3>Rail</h3><br>
<p>About 30% of all inland transport volume is carried by the island&#39;s railways, most of which are organized as the Sakhalin Railway (Сахалинская железная дорога), which is one of the 17 territorial divisions of the Russian Railways.</p><br>
<p>The Sakhalin Railway network extends from Nogliki in the north to Korsakov in the south. Sakhalin&#39;s railway has a connection with the rest of Russia via a ferry operating between Vanino and Kholmsk.</p><br>
<p>Besides the main network run by the Russian Railways, until December 2006 the local oil company (Sakhalinmorneftegaz) operated a corporate narrow-gauge line extending for 228 km from Nogliki further north to Okha (Узкоколейная железная дорога Оха — Ноглики). During the last years of its service, it gradually deteriorated; the service was terminated in December 2006, and the line was dismantled in 2007–2008.</p><br>
<h3>Air</h3><br>
<p>Sakhalin is connected by regular flights to Moscow, Khabarovsk, Vladivostok and other cities of Russia. Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Airport has regularly scheduled international flights to Hakodate, Japan, and Seoul and Busan, South Korea. There are also charter flights to the Japanese cities of Tokyo, Niigata, and Sapporo and to the Chinese cities of Shanghai, Dalian and Harbin. The island was formerly served by Alaska Airlines from Anchorage, Petropavlovsk and Magadan.</p><br>
<h3>Fixed links</h3><br>
<p>The idea of building a fixed link between Sakhalin and the Russian mainland was first mooted in the 1930s. In the 1940s, an abortive attempt was made to link the island via a 10 km undersea tunnel. The workers supposedly made it almost to the half-way point before the project was abandoned under Nikita Khrushchev. In 2000, the Russian government revived the idea, adding a suggestion that a 40-km-long bridge could be constructed between Sakhalin and the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, providing Japan with a direct connection to the Euro-Asian railway network. It was claimed that construction work could begin as early as 2001. The idea was received skeptically by the Japanese government and appears to have been shelved, probably permanently, after the cost was estimated at as much as US$50 billion.</p><br>
<p>In November 2008, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev announced government support for the construction of the Sakhalin Tunnel, along with the required re-gauging of the island&#39;s railways to Russian standard gauge, at an estimated cost of 300–330 billion roubles.</p><br>
<p>In July 2013, Russian Far East development minister Viktor Ishayev proposed a rail bridge to link Sakhalin with the Russian mainland. He also again suggested a bridge between Sakhalin and Hokkaidō, which could potentially create a continuous rail corridor between Europe and Japan.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Sakhalin is a classic "primary sector of the economy" relying on oil and gas exports, coal mining, forestry, and fishing. Limited quantities of rye, wheat, oats, barley and vegetables are grown, although the growing season averages less than 100 days.</p><br>
<p>Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and economic liberalization, Sakhalin has experienced an oil boom with extensive petroleum exploration and mining by most large oil multinational corporations. The oil and natural gas reserves contain an estimated 14 billion barrels (2.2 km) of oil and 2,700 km (96 trillion cubic feet) of gas and are being developed under production-sharing agreement contracts involving international oil companies like ExxonMobil and Shell.</p><br>
<p>In 1996, two large consortia signed contracts to explore for oil and gas off the northeast coast of the island, Sakhalin-I and Sakhalin-II. The two consortia were estimated to spend a combined US$21 billion on the two projects which almost doubled to $37 billion as of September 2006, triggering Russian governmental opposition. The cost will include an estimated US$1 billion to upgrade the island&#39;s infrastructure: roads, bridges, waste management sites, airports, railways, communications systems, and ports. In addition, Sakhalin-III-through-VI are in various early stages of development.</p><br>
<p>The Sakhalin I project, managed by Exxon Neftegas Limited (ENL), completed a production-sharing agreement (PSA) between the Sakhalin I consortium, the Russian Federation, and the Sakhalin government. Russia is in the process of building a 220 km pipeline across the Tatar Strait from Sakhalin Island to De-Kastri terminal on the Russian mainland. From De-Kastri, the resource will be loaded onto tankers for transport to East Asian markets, namely Japan, South Korea and China.</p><br>
<p>The second consortium, Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Ltd (Sakhalin Energy), is managing the Sakhalin II project. It completed the first ever production-sharing agreement (PSA) with the Russian Federation. Sakhalin Energy will build two 800-km pipelines running from the northeast of the island to Prigorodnoye (Prigorodnoe) in Aniva Bay at the southern end. The consortium will also build, at Prigorodnoye, the first ever liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant to be built in Russia. The oil and gas are also bound for East Asian markets.</p><br>
<p>Sakhalin II has come under fire from environmental groups, namely Sakhalin Environment Watch, for dumping dredging material in Aniva Bay. The groups were also worried about the offshore pipelines interfering with the migration of whales off the island. The consortium has (as of January 2006) re-routed the pipeline to avoid the whale migration. After a doubling in the projected cost, the Russian government threatened to halt the project for environmental reasons. There have been suggestions that the Russian government is using the environmental issues as a pretext for obtaining a greater share of revenues from the project and/or forcing involvement by the state-controlled Gazprom. The cost overruns (at least partly due to Shell&#39;s response to environmental concerns), are reducing the share of profits flowing to the Russian treasury.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, the oil and gas industry accounted for 57.5% of Sakhalins industrial output. By 2006, it is expected to account for 80% of the islands industrial output. Sakhalin&#39;s economy is growing rapidly thanks to its oil and gas industry. By 2005, the island had become the largest recipient of foreign investment in Russia, followed by Moscow. Unemployment in 2002 was only 2%.</p><br>
<p>As of 18 April 2007, Gazprom has taken a 50% plus one share interest in Sakhalin II by purchasing 50% of Shell, Mitsui and Mitsubishi&#39;s shares.</p><br>
<h2>International partnerships</h2><br>
<p>Gig Harbor, Washington, United States</p><br>
<p>Jeju Province, South Korea</p><br>
<h2>Notable People</h2><br>
<p>Lubov Nikolievna Kibitkina- Influential Artist in Charleston, South Carolina</p><br>
<p>La Pérouse Strait, or Sōya Strait, is a strait dividing the southern part of the Russian island of Sakhalin  from the northern part of the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, and connecting the Sea of Japan on the west with the Sea of Okhotsk on the east.</p><br>
<p>The strait is 42 km long and 40 to 140 m deep. The narrowest part of the strait is in the west between Russias Cape Krillion and Japans Cape Soya, which is also the shallowest at only 60 meters deep. A small rocky island, appropriately named Kamen Opasnosti (Russian for "Rock of Danger") is located in the Russian waters in the northeastern part of the strait, 8 miles southeast of the Cape Krillion. Another small island, Bentenjima, lies near the Japanese shore of the strait.</p><br>
<p>The strait is named after Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, who explored the channel in 1787.</p><br>
<p>Japans territorial waters extend to three nautical miles into La Pérouse Strait instead of the usual twelve, reportedly to allow nuclear-armed United States Navy warships and submarines to transit the strait without violating Japans prohibition against nuclear weapons in its territory.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Between 1848 and 1892, American whaleships passed through the strait in the spring and summer as they made their way from the right whale grounds in the Sea of Japan to the Sea of Okhotsk to hunt right and bowhead whales. The ship David Paddack (352 tons), Captain Swain, of Nantucket, was bound home with a full cargo when she wrecked in the strait in 1848.</p><br>
<h2>Proposed rail crossing</h2><br>
<p>A rail tunnel has been proposed to connect Japan and Russia under the Strait. Eventually connecting to the Trans-Siberian Railroad. A bridge has also been proposed.</p><br>
<p>The Savinja is a river in northeast Slovenia which flows mostly in the Upper and Lower Savinja Valley  and through the cities of Celje and Laško. The Savinja is the main river of the Savinja Alps . It flows into the Sava River at the town of Zidani Most. It has often flooded, such as in the 1960s, 1990, and 1995. The Savinja has a length of 102 km.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>The stream is created by Rinka Falls, which flows along a regulated riverbed to the lower end of the Logar Valley, where it flows into Jezera Creek, from which point it becomes the Savinja River. This spring has been proclaimed a natural heritage object, and Rinka Falls is one of the most beautiful and best-known waterfalls in Slovenia. It is the highest waterfall of the 20 waterfalls in the Logar Valley and is visited throughout the year. In the winter it is popular for ice-climbers. The best view of the waterfall is from Kamnik Saddle (Kamniško sedlo).</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>The main tributaries of the Savinja are the Jušef and the Klobaša at Solčava, the Lučnica at Luče, the Ljubnica at Ljubno, the Dreta at Nazarje, the Paka at Šmartno ob Paki, and the Ložnica and Voglajna with the Hudinja at Celje.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality</h2><br>
<p>The quality of water is first-class to Radmirje, then it falls to second class and after to third.</p><br>
<h2>Hydronym and etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Savinja (attested in written sources in 980 as Sovuina) is derived from *Savьn′a, in turn derived from the hydronym Sava, of which it is a tributary. The German name Sann was attested later. In the local dialect, the river is known as Sáńe. The form *Savьn′a should have yielded Savnja as the current Slovene name, but it was reshaped on the model of Hudinja. The name is believed to ultimately not be of Slavic origin, but of older pre-Slavic origin.</p><br>
<p>The German name Sann was also used in some older English sources; for example, in the ninth edition of Encyclopædia Britannica from 1911.</p><br>
<p>Some other names for the river include:</p><br>
<p>fluvius Sana (9th century)</p><br>
<p>Souina (980)</p><br>
<p>inter fluenta Souuuę et Sounę (1016)</p><br>
<p>Seuna (1016)</p><br>
<p>Souna (1025,1028)</p><br>
<p>inter fluenta Souuuae et Sounae (1028)</p><br>
<p>Sounital (1042)</p><br>
<p>The Roman goddess Adsaluta, whose altars were found in the area of the settlement of Sava, was long identified with the Savinja. Modern scholars have rejected the connection.</p><br>
<h2>Life along the river</h2><br>
<p>Raftsmen from Ljubno traveled along the river until the 1950s. In their memory, a bronze sculpture of a raftsman (Splavar), created in 1961 by Boris Kalin, stands on the river&#39;s left bank in Celje.</p><br>
<p>Klyuchevskaya Sopka  is a stratovolcano, the highest mountain on the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia and the highest active volcano of Eurasia. Its steep, symmetrical cone towers about 100 km from the Bering Sea. The volcano is part of the natural Volcanoes of Kamchatka UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>Klyuchevskaya&#39;s first recorded eruption occurred in 1697, and it has been almost continuously active ever since, as have many of its neighboring volcanoes. It was first climbed in 1788 by Daniel Gauss and two other members of the Billings Expedition. No other ascents were recorded until 1931, when several climbers were killed by flying lava on the descent. As similar dangers still exist today, few ascents are made.</p><br>
<p>Klyuchevskaya Sopka is considered sacred by some indigenous peoples, being viewed by them as the location at which the world was created. Other volcanoes in the region are seen with similar spiritual significance, but Klyuchevskaya Sopka is the most sacred of these.</p><br>
<h2>2007 eruption</h2><br>
<p>Beginning in early January 2007, the Klyuchevskaya volcano began another eruption cycle. Students from the University of Alaska Fairbanks and scientists of the Alaska Volcano Observatory traveled to Kamchatka in the spring to monitor the eruption. On 28 June 2007, the volcano began to experience the largest explosions so far recorded in this eruption cycle. An ash plume from the eruption reached a height of 10 km before drifting eastward, disrupting air traffic from the United States to Asia and causing ashfalls on Alaska&#39;s Unimak Island.</p><br>
<h2>2010 eruption</h2><br>
<p>As early as 27 February 2010, gas plumes had erupted from Klyuchevskaya Sopka (reaching elevations of 7,000 m) and during the first week of March 2010, both explosive ash eruptions and effusive lava eruptions occurred until, by 9 March, the ash cloud was reported to have reached an elevation of 6,000 m. Also, significant thermal anomalies have been reported and gas-steam plumes extended roughly 50 km to the north-east from the volcano on 3 March.</p><br>
<h2>2012 eruptions</h2><br>
<p>On 15 October 2012 the volcano had a weak eruption that stopped the following day. Also a weak thermal eruption occurred on 29 November 2012, then stopped again, as all of its neighboring volcanoes Bezymianny, Karymsky, Kizimen, Shiveluch, and Tolbachik erupted more actively and continuously, taking a major magma supply load off of Klyuchevskaya Sopka.</p><br>
<h2>2013 eruptions</h2><br>
<p>On 25 January 2013 the volcano had a weak or lazy-type strombolian eruption that stopped the following day. During January 2013, all volcanoes in the eastern part of Kamchatka Bezymianny, Karymsky, Kizimen, Klyuchevskaya Sopka (aka Kliuchevskoi), Shiveluch, and Tolbachik have erupted except Kamen (volcano).</p><br>
<p>On August 15, 2013, the volcano had another weak Strombolian eruption with some slight lava flow that put on an excellent fireworks display before stopping on August 21, 2013, when Gorely Volcano woke up and started erupting again in relief of Klyuchevskaya Sopka.</p><br>
<p>On October 12, Klyuchevskaya had another three days of on-and-off eruptions with anomalies and a short ash plume, possibly indicating Strombolian and weak Vulcanian activity. An explosion from a new cinder cone low on Kliuchevskoi’s southwest flank occurred on October 12. An ash plume rose to altitudes of 6 –, and drifted eastward. The eruptions weakened and paused by October 16, 2013.</p><br>
<p>On November 19, a strong explosion occurred, and observers reported that ash plumes rose to altitudes of 10 – and drifted southeast. The Aviation Color Code was raised to Red. Later that day the altitudes of the ash plumes were lower and the eruptions weakened and stopped again.</p><br>
<p>On December 7, activity at Kliuchevskoi and significantly increased, having continued during November 29 – December 7, prompting KVERT to raise the Alert Level to Red. Ash plumes rose to altitudes of 5.5 – above sea level and drifted more than 212 km northeast and over 1,000 km east. According to a news article, a warning to aircraft was issued for the area around the volcanoes. Video showed gas-and-steam activity, and satellite images detected a daily weak thermal anomaly. On December 9, the Alert Level was lowered to Green when the eruptions stopped.</p><br>
<h2>2015 eruptions</h2><br>
<p>On January 2, 2015 the volcano had a weak or lazy-type strombolian eruption after a one-year period of inactivity, which stopped again on January 16, 2015, and the lazy eruption resumed on March 10, 2015 only to stop again on March 24, 2015.</p><br>
<p>On August 27, 2015 the volcano had another weak or lazy-type strombolian eruption which ended some 16 hours later. This type of weak or lazy-type strombolian eruption non-violent eruptions continues into 2016, and 2017 as well.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>The Bacan Islands, formerly also known as the Bachans, Bachians, and Batchians, are an group of islands in the Moluccas in Indonesia. They are mountainous and forested, lying south of Ternate and southwest of Halmahera. The islands are administered by the South Halmahera Regency of North Maluku Province.</p><br>
<p>Bacan (Batjan), formerly also known as Bachian or Batchian, is the group&#39;s largest island. The second and third largest islands are Kasiruta and Mandioli. Bacan includes about 60,000 people of which about 8,000 live in the capital Labuha; it is subdivided into 7 districts. Kasiruta and Mandioli each have over 8,000 inhabitants, and each is subdivided into 2 districts. There are dozens of smaller islands in the group.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1513, the first Portuguese trading fleet to reach the Moluccas set up a trading post on Bacan which at the time was subservient to the Sultan of Ternate. The fleets commander, Captain Antonio de Miranda Azevedo, left seven men on Bacan to buy cloves for the following years expedition. Their arrogant behaviour and reported bad treatment of Bacan women led to their murder. As Ternate did not have enough stock, the ship for which the men had stayed to prepare was used by the Sultan of Ternate to fill Ferdinand Magellans last ship, which was the first ship to circumnavigate the world. A slave and two birds of paradise were given to the ship by Bacan. Bacan became a place of refuge for rebellious Ternateans. The Portuguese sent a punitive expedition against Bacan but it failed, and instead the Portuguese Governor Galvão challenged Bacans sultan to a duel to determine who was to be subservient to whom. The challenge was accepted but the duel never took place.</p><br>
<p>In 1557, Father Antonio Vaz converted Bacan&#39;s sultan and court members to Catholicism. The king subsequently married Sultan Hairun of Ternate who had also become a Catholic. Ternate invaded in 1578 and the king apostasized. A community of Christians remained and were later joined by correligionists from Tobelo and Ambon. A small Roman Catholic hospital was built by an elderly Dutch nun. Today, Protestants significantly outnumber Catholics. During the mid-19th century Moluccan travels of British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, Christians in the Moluccas were called Orang Sirani ( "Nazarene People"), a term regularly applied to locals of European ancestry in the Malay Archipelago, thought to have been descended from the Portuguese. They had dressed in white and black and Wallace reports they dance "quadrilles, waltzes, polkas, and mazurkas with great vigour and much skill".</p><br>
<p>Following the 1578 Ternatean invasion, Bacan appears to have become subservient to Ternate. The wife of Sultan Said of Ternate was provided by Bacan. A Spanish fort was built in 1606. Once the Dutch established hegemony in the 17th century, the Netherlands&#39; power on Bacan was based in Fort Barnaveld.</p><br>
<p>In 1705, the sergeant in charge of the fort and the sultan captured the English explorer William Dampier, seized his ship, looted its cargo, and threatened all aboard with execution. It is thought that this was in response to Dampier violating the trade monopoly. When the sergeants Dutch superiors heard of the incident, Dampier was released, his ship restored and the English provided with sumptuous hospitality in Ternate. The chief town at the time, also known as Bachian, was Amasing or Amasingkota on the islands isthmus.</p><br>
<p>Ternate and Bacan were the only places in the northern Moluccas that had a Dutch curriculum school and a Protestant minister in the late 19th century. The majority of Bacan&#39;s Roman Catholics became Protestants during the Dutch colonial period. These Sirani wore semi-European dress and celebrated Sundays with dancing and music. The Sultanate of Bacan was treated as a Dutch protectorate; it was replaced by a council of chiefs under a Dutch contrôleur in 1889. What independence remained was lost with the Japanese occupation during and Indonesian independence after World War II. The most significant modern town is Labuha on the west coast. Bacan has more recently been in the news due to violence between Christian and Muslim inhabitants of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Bacan is of irregular form, consisting of two distinct mountainous parts, united by a low isthmus, which a slight subsidence would submerge. The total land area is around 1,900 km². The prevailing rocks are sandstone, coralline limestone, and pebbly conglomerate, although hot springs attest to volcanic activity as well. The ancient and non-volcanic rocks are especially prevalent on the south side of the island. The sulphur spring at Taubenkit has a temperature of 125 &deg;F and a still more remarkable example is found at Sayowang on the east coast. "Amasing Hill" on the northern half consists of three small andesitic volcanoes: Cakasuanggi, Dua Saudara, and Mount Sibela. The highest elevation on the southern half is Gunong Sabella or Labua (6,950 ft), which the locals traditionally considered the seat of evil spirits. Coal and other minerals have been discovered.</p><br>
<p>During the 19th and early 20th century, large portions of the island were richly wooded, with indigenous sago, coconuts and cloves abundantly produced. The Dutch purposefully exterminated the native nutmeg trees: a large grove still remained as late as the 1870s but it had disappeared by the onset of World War I. It is the easternmost point naturally inhabited by primates, in the form of the Celebes crested macaque which is native to Sulawesi. The world&#39;s largest bee, the giant mason bee, occurs here and on nearby Halmahera.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>By the mid-19th century, the interior of the island was considered uninhabited and the coastal dwellers all non-indigenous. They consisted of the Christian descendants of Portuguese sailors (Sirani), of Malays and Papuans, of Galelas from northern Halmahera, and of Tomore people from Sulawesis Bay of Tolo. Prior to World War I, the population was around 13&thinsp;000, including some Chinese and Arabs. In the late 1990s, 193 of Bacans 7,700 Christians were Protestants.</p><br>
<p>Several Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages are spoken on Bacan, including Tobelo, Galela, Ternate, Bajau, and Tukang Besi. However, the indigenous language of Bacan is Bacanese, also known as Bacan Malay (ISO 639-3). There is some debate as to whether Bacanese is a Malay variety or a Malay-based creole.</p><br>
<p>Some Bacan words occurs in Wiltens & Danckaerts 1623 vocabulary. Bacan is also reviewed in Adriani & Kruijts 1914 monograph. The most detailed studies are by James T. Collins, who concludes that Bacan is indeed a Malay variety, descended from the Malay used in the Bacan Sultanate.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Colonial interest in Bacan was primarily driven by the spice trade, which was flourishing in Ternate, Tidore, and Halmahera. The island of Bacan was not particularly sought-after for its own resources, but rather, to assist control of the more valuable islands nearby. The Dutch East India Company paid a stipend to the Bacan sultan as compensation for the destruction of Bacan&#39;s clove trees that was higher than the salary of the Dutch Governor on Ternate and about 1/9 of that paid to the Sultan of Ternate.</p><br>
<p>It is thought that gold was washed on Bacan since at least 1774; in the mid-nineteenth century, 20 skilled Chinese gold workers were brought from west Borneo but a gold rush did not eventuate. During the era of steam power, an attempt was made to establish coal mining on the island using Japanese convicts imprisoned by the Dutch. However, following the delivery of several tons the grade of coal was deemed poor and the mining was discontinued.</p><br>
<p>From 1882, an Amsterdam merchant cleared plantations for vanilla, coffee, tobacco and potatoes, however, his land was unsuitable and the crops succumbed to floods, drought, rot, insects and rodents. Despite over ten years of large investments of capital, creditors forced him out of business in 1900 although they also did not succeed with the plantations. The indigenous economy included the gathering of pearl and mother-of-pearl, and the harvesting the resin from dammar.</p><br>
<p>James Bay  is a large body of water on the southern end of Hudson Bay in Canada. Both bodies of water extend from the Arctic Ocean, of which James Bay is the southernmost part. It borders the provinces of Quebec and Ontario; islands within the bay  are part of Nunavut. The James Bay watershed is the site of several major hydroelectric projects, and is also a destination for river-based recreation. Several communities are located near or alongside James Bay, including a number of Aboriginal communities such as the Kashechewan First Nation and nine communities affiliated with the Crees of northern Quebec.</p><br>
<p>As with the rest of Hudson Bay, the waters of James Bay routinely freeze over in winter, although it is the last to freeze over in winter, and conversely the first to thaw in summer.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Human presence along the shores of the bay can be traced back to the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age around 8,150 years ago. Since contact with Europeans, the indigenous peoples along both shores of the bay were ethnically Cree peoples.</p><br>
<p>The bay first came to the attention of Europeans in 1610, when Henry Hudson entered it during his exploration of the larger bay that bears his name. It received its name in honour of Thomas James, a Welsh captain who explored the area more thoroughly in 1630 and 1631.</p><br>
<p>James Bay is important in the history of Canada as one of the most hospitable parts of the Hudson Bay region despite its low human population. As a result, its corresponding importance to the Hudsons Bay Company and British expansion into Canada. The fur-trapping duo of explorers Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers convinced the English Crown, primarily Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a favoured nephew of Charles I and cousin to Charles II, that a colonial enterprise in the north would yield wealth in minerals and fur. Des Groseilliers accompanied Captain Zachariah Gillam on the ketch Nonsuch and they jointly founded the first fur-trading post on James Bay, Charles Fort. Their success, though lacking in minerals, was such that the company was chartered by Charles II on their return. This charter granted a complete trading monopoly of the whole Hudson Bay basin (including James Bay) to the company. At the same time, the first English colony on what is now mainland Canada, Ruperts Land, was formed, with the first "capital" being at Charles Fort. The fact that the first colonial governor, Charles Baley (various spellings exist, including, but not limited to "Bailey"), was a Quaker might have been an important factor in the style of relations established between the company and its "trading partners", Canada&#39;s First Nations.</p><br>
<p>Significant fur trapping has continued in the region, but in general the east coast or East Main of James Bay was too easily accessed by French and independent traders from the south so early Hudson&#39;s Bay Company emphasis was quickly placed onto interior trapping grounds reached from the west coasts of James and Hudson Bays. It was, nevertheless, the gateway to British settlements in what would become Manitoba (Winnipeg, (for example) and as far west as the Rocky Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>James Bay represents the southern extent of the Arctic Archipelago Marine ecozone. While the coastal areas are primarily in the Hudson Plains, the northeastern coast bordering Quebec is in the Taiga Shield ecozone. This rocky and hilly eastern shore forms the western edge of the Canadian Shield in Quebec and as such the main habitat is boreal forest of the Eastern Canadian Shield taiga ecoregion. The western shore however is characterised by broad tundra lowlands that are an extension of the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the vegetation is mostly muskeg bog. A large portion of this area is part of the Polar Bear Provincial Park. Ringed seals are common elsewhere along James Bay and polar bears can be seen targeting the seals for prey. Beluga whales within James Bay basin could be distinct from those found in Hudson Bay.</p><br>
<p>Hundreds of rivers flow into James Bay. The geography of the region gives many of them similar characteristics. They tend to be wide and shallow near the Bay (in the James Bay Lowlands), whereas they are steeper and narrower farther upstream (as they pour off the Canadian Shield). For a larger list of waterways in the region, see list of Hudson Bay rivers.</p><br>
<h3>Hannah Bay</h3><br>
<p>Hannah Bay is the southernmost bay of James Bay. Here the Kesagami and Harricana Rivers flow into James Bay. About 238 km is protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act of Canada as the Hannah Bay Bird Sanctuary. This sanctuary has also been designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention since May 1987.</p><br>
<p>The shores in this area are a mixture of intertidal mud, sand, and salt flats, estuarine waters, intertidal marshes, freshwater ponds, swamps, and forested peatlands. These elements make an abundance of wildlife.</p><br>
<h2>Human development</h2><br>
<h3>Coastal communities</h3><br>
<p>The shores of James Bay are sparsely populated. On the eastern shore in Quebec there are four coastal communities belonging to the Cree, the indigenous people of the region (from south to north):</p><br>
<p>Waskaganish</p><br>
<p>Eastmain</p><br>
<p>Wemindji</p><br>
<p>Chisasibi</p><br>
<p>On the western shore in Ontario there are five coastal communities (from south to north):</p><br>
<p>Moose Factory</p><br>
<p>Moosonee</p><br>
<p>Fort Albany</p><br>
<p>Kashechewan</p><br>
<p>Attawapiskat</p><br>
<h3>Economic development</h3><br>
<p>Since 1971, the government of Quebec has built hydroelectric dams on rivers in the James Bay watershed, notably La Grande and Eastmain rivers. Built between 1974 and 1996, the James Bay Project now has a combined generating capacity of 16,021 MW and produces about 83,000,000,000 kWh of electricity each year, about half of Quebec&#39;s consumption. Power is also exported to the United States via a direct transmission high voltage line. The James Bay Project continues to expand, with work that began in 2010 on a new phase that involves the diversion of the Rupert River.</p><br>
<p>A proposed development project, the Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal, centres on constructing a large dike to separate southern James Bay from Hudson Bay. This would turn the bay into a freshwater lake, due to the numerous rivers that empty into it. The main benefit expected from this would be to redirect this freshwater for human use. It seems very unlikely that the GRAND Canal will actually ever be built.</p><br>
<p>Other nearby lakes include Lake Yasinski.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<h3>Canoeing</h3><br>
<p>Many of the rivers flowing into James Bay are popular destinations for wilderness canoe-trippers. Among the more popular rivers are:</p><br>
<p>Albany River (Ontario)</p><br>
<p>Moose River (Ontario)</p><br>
<p>Missinaibi River (Ontario)—recognised as a Canadian Heritage River</p><br>
<p>Broadback River (Quebec)</p><br>
<p>Rupert River (Quebec)—diverted in 2009 for hydroelectric development and no longer a popular destination</p><br>
<p>Two less-travelled rivers are the Groundhog River and the Harricana. The Groundhog is less travelled in modern times due to a series of seven dams that are about a day or two up-river from the Moose. Canoeists can contact the dam company and arrange to be towed around the dams on company trucks, but they must make arrangements specific to the hour, and they cannot be late. The Groundhog flows into the Mattagami after a set of rapids known as Seven-Mile. The Mattagami then flows into the Moose; it is at the meeting of the Missinaibi and Mattagami rivers that the Moose river begins, marked by an island known as Portage Island. This point is about two or three days travel by canoe to Moosonee. Though the Missinaibi and the Groundhog are both fairly high in the summer, the Moose is often quite low. Depending on the tides, groups have had to walk long stretches of the river. Rapids on the Groundhog tend to be bigger and more technical than those on the Missinaibi, but the campsites are few and poor, because the volume of travel is so much less.</p><br>
<p>The Harricana River flows into James Bay several miles east of Moosonee, so anyone wishing to take this route must allow about two days to cross the bay, an extremely dangerous proposition if the tides and the weather are unfavourable.</p><br>
<p>The most common access point for paddlers to this area is Moosonee, at the southern end of James Bay. A campsite at Tidewater Provincial Park provides large campgrounds with firepits and outhouses on an island across the river from the town. Water taxis will ferry people back and forth for about C$20 each. Many of these rivers finish near Moosonee, and paddlers can take the Polar Bear Express train south to Cochrane at the end of a trip. This train regularly features a canoe car enabling paddlers to travel with their canoes.</p><br>
<p>Waskaganish, Quebec, is a town farther to the north and east on James Bay. It is accessible via the James Bay Road, and is the most common end point for trips on the Broadback, Pontax, and Rupert rivers (the town itself is situated at the mouth of the Rupert).</p><br>
<p>Lake Zug  is a lake in Central Switzerland, situated between Lake Lucerne and Lake Zurich. It stretches for 14 km between Arth and the Cham-Zug bay. The Lorze as the main feeder river empties its waters into the lake at its northern extremity, but 1 km  further west issues from the lake to pursue its course towards the Reuss. Due to this poor feeding, Environmental protection is very important as the lake would suffer long term damage if polluted as the second of the rivers, Rigiaa, feeds only a marginal amount into the lake at its southern end. Already a great part of the fauna in the deep parts of the lake has been lost.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>The lake is mostly within the borders of the Canton of Zug, with about 10 km&sup2; at its southern end in the canton Schwyz, while the Canton of Lucerne claims about 2 km&sup2; to the north of Immensee. Toward the south-west extremity of the lake the Rigi descends rather steeply to the waters edge, while part of its east shore forms a narrow level band at the foot of the 1,583 m (5,194 ft) Rossberg, and the Zugerberg. The culminating point of the lakes drainage basin is the summit of the Rigi at 1,798 m.</p><br>
<p>At its northern end, the shores are nearly level, while on the west shore the wooded promontory of Buonas (with its castles, old and new) projects picturesquely into the waters. The principal place on the lake is the town of Zug. Three railways follow the shore of the lake, one from Zurich via Zug and Arth-Goldau to the St Gotthard, one from Lucerne via Arth-Goldau to the St Gotthard, and the third from Zurich via Zug to Lucerne.</p><br>
<p>Many fish (including pike and carp of considerable weights) are taken in the lake, which is especially famous for an endemic kind of trout (Salmo salvelinus, locally called Rolheli).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1852.</p><br>
<p>In the early 20th century, a railway (formerly part of the St. Gotthard main route) ran along its eastern shore past Walchwil to Arth at its south end, which was connected initially by a steam tramway with the Arth-Goldau station of the St Gotthard line. This line runs from Arth along the western shore to Immensee, where it bears south-west to Lucerne, while from Immensee another railway leads (at first some way from the shore) to Cham, 5 km west of Zug.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>Arth</p><br>
<p>Gängigen</p><br>
<p>Buonas</p><br>
<p>Cham</p><br>
<p>Chämleten</p><br>
<p>Immensee</p><br>
<p>Risch</p><br>
<p>Walchwil</p><br>
<p>Lorzen</p><br>
<p>Oberwil</p><br>
<h2>Public Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Public transportation on Lake Zug is done by the Zugersee Schifffahrt / Schifffahrtsgesellschaft für den Zugersee AG (SGZ).</p><br>
<p>Honshu or Honshiu, is the largest and most populous island of Japan, located south of Hokkaido across the Tsugaru Strait, north of Shikoku across the Inland Sea, and northeast of Kyushu across the Kanmon Straits. The island separates the Sea of Japan, which lies to its north and west, from the North Pacific Ocean to its south and east. It is the seventh-largest island in the world, and the second-most populous after the Indonesian island of Java.</p><br>
<p>Honshu had a population of 103 million, mostly concentrated in the coastal lowlands, notably in the Kantō plain where 25% of the total population resides in the Greater Tokyo Area. As the historical center of Japanese culture and political power, the island includes several past Japanese capitals, including Kyoto, Nara, and Kamakura. Much of the island&#39;s southern shore forms part of the Taiheiyō Belt, a megalopolis that spans several of the Japanese islands.</p><br>
<p>Most of Japans industry is located in a belt running along Honshus southern coast, from Tokyo to Kyoto, Osaka, Nagoya, Kobe, and Hiroshima; by contrast, the economy along the northwestern Sea of Japan (East Sea) coast is largely based on fishing and agriculture. The island is linked to the other three major Japanese islands by a number of bridges and tunnels. Its climate is humid and mild.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is roughly 1,300 km long and ranges from 50 to 230 km wide, and its total area is, 60% of the total area of Japan, making it slightly larger than Great Britain. Its land area has been increasing with land reclamation and coastal uplift in the north, but global sea level rise has diminished these effects. Honshu has 5,450 km of coastline.</p><br>
<p>Mountainous and volcanic, Honshu experiences frequent earthquakes (the Great Kantō earthquake heavily damaged Tokyo in September 1923, and the earthquake of March 2011 moved the northeastern part of the island by varying amounts of as much as 5.3 m while causing devastating tsunamis). The highest peak is the active volcano Mount Fuji at 3,776 m, which makes Honshu the worlds 7th highest island. There are many rivers, including the Shinano River, Japans longest. The Japanese Alps run the length of Honshu, dividing the northwestern (Sea of Japan, also called East Sea) shore from the southeastern (Pacific or Inland Sea) shore; the climate is generally humid subtropical in the southern and coastal parts of the island and humid continental in the northern and inland portions.</p><br>
<h3>Extreme points</h3><br>
<p>The northernmost point on Honshu is the tip of the Shimokita Peninsula in Ōma, Aomori; Cape Kure lies at the southern extreme in Kushimoto, Wakayama. The island&#39;s eastern extremity is Todogasaki in Miyako, Iwate, and its western one is Bishanohana in Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi. Honshu spans more than eight degrees of latitude and 11 degrees of longitude.</p><br>
<h3>Bridges and tunnels</h3><br>
<p>Honshu is connected to the islands of Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku by tunnels and bridges. Three bridge systems have been built across the islands of the Inland Sea between Honshu and Shikoku (Akashi Kaikyō Bridge and the Ōnaruto Bridge; Shin-Onomichi Bridge, Innoshima Bridge, Ikuchi Bridge, Tatara Bridge, Ōmishima Bridge, Hakata–Ōshima Bridge, and the Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge; Shimotsui-Seto Bridge, Hitsuishijima Bridge, Iwakurojima Bridge, Yoshima Bridge, Kita Bisan-Seto Bridge, and the Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge), the Seikan Tunnel connects Honshu with Hokkaido, and the Kanmonkyo Bridge and Kanmon Tunnel connects Honshu with Kyushu.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative regions and prefectures</h2><br>
<p>The island is divided into five nominal regions and contains 34 prefectures, including metropolitan Tokyo. Administratively, some smaller islands are included within these prefectures, notably including the Ogasawara Islands, Sado Island, Izu Ōshima, and Awaji Island.</p><br>
<p>The regions and its prefectures are:</p><br>
<p>Tōhoku region consists of six prefectures.</p><br>
<p>Kantō region consists of seven prefectures, including the capital of Japan which is the Tokyo Metropolis.</p><br>
<p>Chūbu region consists of nine prefectures.</p><br>
<p>Kansai region consists of seven prefectures.</p><br>
<p>Chūgoku region consists of five prefectures.</p><br>
<h2>Natural features</h2><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>Most of Japan&#39;s tea and silk is from Honshu. Fruits, vegetables, grains, rice and cotton are grown in Honshu.</p><br>
<h3>Minerals</h3><br>
<p>Yields of zinc, copper, and oil have been found on Honshu.</p><br>
<p>The Sea of Japan  is a marginal sea between the Japanese archipelago, Sakhalin, the Korean Peninsula and Russia. The Japanese archipelago separates the sea from the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Japan, Korea  and Russia. Like the Mediterranean Sea, it has almost no tides due to its nearly complete enclosure from the Pacific Ocean. This isolation also reflects in the fauna species and in the water salinity, which is lower than in the ocean. The sea has no large islands, bays or capes. Its water balance is mostly determined by the inflow and outflow through the straits connecting it to the neighboring seas and Pacific Ocean. Few rivers discharge into the sea and their total contribution to the water exchange is within 1%.</p><br>
<p>The seawater has an elevated concentration of dissolved oxygen that results in high biological productivity. Therefore, fishing is the dominant economic activity in the region. The intensity of shipments across the sea has been moderate owing to political issues, but it is steadily increasing as a result of the growth of East Asian economies.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>Sea of Japan is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and the name in most European languages is equivalent, but it is sometimes called by different names in surrounding countries, often reflecting historical claims to hegemony over the sea.</p><br>
<p>The sea is called Rìběn hǎi (日本海, literally "Japan Sea") or originally Jīng hǎi (鲸海, literally "Whale Sea") in China, Yaponskoye more (Японское море, literally "Japanese Sea") in Russia, Chosŏn Tonghae (조선동해, literally "Korean East Sea") in North Korea, and Donghae (동해, literally "East Sea") in South Korea. A naming dispute exists about the sea name, with Korea promoting the English translation of its native name as the East Sea.</p><br>
<p>In Southeast Asia, the sea is called "Laut Jepun" in Malay, "Laut Jepang" in Indonesian, and "Dagat Hapon" in Filipino.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the "Japan Sea" as follows:</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>The Sea of Japan was a landlocked sea when the land bridge of East Asia existed. The onset of formation of the Japan Arc was in Early Miocene. The Early Miocene period also corresponds to the Japan Sea starting to open, and the northern and southern parts of the Japanese archipelago separating from each other. During the Miocene, there was expansion of Sea of Japan.</p><br>
<p>The north part of the Japanese archipelago was further fragmented later until orogenesis of the northeastern Japanese archipelago began in the later Late Miocene. The south part of the Japanese archipelago remained as a relatively large landmass. The land area had expanded northward in the Late Miocene. The orogenesis of high mountain ranges in northeastern Japan started in Late Miocene and lasted in Pliocene also.</p><br>
<p>Nowadays the Sea of Japan is bounded by the Russian mainland and Sakhalin island to the north, the Korean Peninsula to the west, and the Japanese islands of Hokkaidō, Honshū and Kyūshū to the east and south. It is connected to other seas by five straits: the Strait of Tartary between the Asian mainland and Sakhalin; La Pérouse Strait between the Sakhalin and Hokkaidō; the Tsugaru Strait between Hokkaidō and Honshū; the Kanmon Straits between Honshū and Kyūshū; and the Korea Strait between the Korean Peninsula and Kyūshū.</p><br>
<p>The Korea Strait is composed of the Western Channel and the Tsushima Strait, on either side of Tsushima Island. The straits were formed in recent geologic periods. The oldest of them are the Tsugaru and Tsushima straits. Their formation had interrupted the migration of elephants into the Japanese islands at the end of the Neogene Period (about 2.6 million years ago). The most recent is La Perouse Strait, which formed about 60,000 to 11,000 years ago closing the path used by mammoths which had earlier moved to northern Hokkaidō. All the straits are rather shallow with a minimal depth of the order of 100 meters or less. This hinders water exchange, thereby isolating the water and aquatic life of the Sea of Japan from the neighboring seas and oceans.</p><br>
<p>The sea has a surface area of about, a mean depth of and a maximum depth of. It has a carrot-like shape, with the major axis extending from southwest to northeast and a wide southern part narrowing toward the north. The coastal length is about with the largest part belonging to Russia. The sea extends from north to south for more than and has a maximum width of about.</p><br>
<p>It has three major basins: the Yamato Basin in the southeast, the Japan Basin in the north and the Tsushima Basin (Ulleung Basin) in the southwest. The Japan Basin is of oceanic origin and is the deepest part of the sea, whereas the Tsushima Basin is the shallowest with the depths below. On the eastern shores, the continental shelves of the sea are wide, but on the western shores, particularly along the Korean coast, they are narrow, averaging about.</p><br>
<p>There are three distinct continental shelves in the northern part (above 44° N). They form a staircase-like structure with the steps slightly inclined southwards and submerged to the depths of 900 -, 1,700 - and. The last step sharply drops to the depths of about toward the central (deepest) part of the sea. The bottom of this part is relatively flat, but has a few plateaus. In addition, an underwater ridge rising up to runs from north to south through the middle of the central part.</p><br>
<p>The Japanese coastal area of the sea consists of Okujiri Ridge, Sado Ridge, Hakusan Banks, Wakasa Ridge and Oki Ridge. Yamato Ridge is of continental origin and is composed of granite, rhyolite, andesite and basalt. It has uneven bottom covered with boulders of volcanic rock. Most other areas of the sea are of oceanic origin. Seabed down to is of continental nature and is covered with a mixture of mud, sand, gravel and fragments of rock. The depths between are covered in hemipelagic sediments (i.e., of semi-oceanic origin); these sediments are composed of blue mud rich in organic matter. Pelagic sediments of red mud dominate the deeper regions.</p><br>
<p>There are no large islands in the sea. Most of the smaller ones are located near the eastern coast, except for Ulleungdo (South Korea). The most significant islands are Moneron, Rebun, Rishiri, Okushiri, Ōshima, Sado, Okinoshima, Ulleungdo, Askold, Russky and Putyatin. The shorelines are relatively straight and are lacking large bays or capes; the coastal shapes are simplest for Sakhalin and are more winding in the Japanese islands.</p><br>
<p>The largest bays are Peter the Great Gulf, Sovetskaya Gavan; Vladimira Bay, Olga; Posyet Bay in Russia; East Korea Bay in North Korea; and Ishikari (Hokkaidō), Toyama (Honshū), and Wakasa (Honshū) Bays in Japan. Prominent capes include Lazareva, Peschanyi (sandy), Povorotny, Gromova, Pogibi, Tyk, and Korsakova in Russia; Crillon on Sakhalin; Sōya, Nosappu, Tappi, Nyuda, Rebun, Rishiri, Okushiri, Daso and Oki in Japan; and Musu Dan in North Korea.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The sea climate is characterized by warm waters and monsoons. This combination results in strong evaporation, which is especially noticeable between October and March when the strong ( or higher) northwestern monsoon wind brings cold and dry continental air. The evaporation is blown further south causing snowfall in the mountainous western coasts of Japan. This winter monsoon brings typhoons and storms with the waves reaching which erode the western coasts of Japan. Tsunami waves were also recorded in the sea. In addition, the monsoon enhances the surface water convection, down to the depths of.</p><br>
<p>The coldest months are January and February with the average air temperature of -20 &deg;C in the north and 5 &deg;C in the south. The northern one-quarter of the sea, particularly the Siberian coast and the Strait of Tartary, freezes for about 4−5 months. The timing and extent of freezing vary from year to year, so ice may start forming in the bays as early as in October and its remains may be seen even in June. Ice cover is continuous only in the bays and forms floating patches in the open sea. Ice melting in spring results in cold currents in the northern areas.</p><br>
<p>In summer the wind weakens to and reverses its direction, blowing warm and humid air from the North Pacific onto the Asian mainland. The warmest month is August with the average air temperature of 15 &deg;C in the north and 25 &deg;C in the south. Annual precipitation increases from in the north-west to in the south-east.</p><br>
<p>A peculiar turbulent cloud pattern, named von Kármán vortices, is sometimes observed over the Sea of Japan. It requires a stable field of low clouds driven by the wind over a small (isolated) and tall obstacle, and usually forms over small mountainous islands. The Sea of Japan meets these conditions as it has frequent winds and cloudy skies, as well as compact, tall islands such as Rishiri, Ulleungdo and Ōshima.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>The sea currents circulate in the counterclockwise direction. The Kuroshio (Japan Current), the Tsushima Current and the East Korea Warm Current bring warmer and more saline water to the north. There they merge into the Tsugaru Current and flow into the Pacific Ocean through the Tsugaru Strait. They also feed the Sōya Current and exit through the La Perouse Strait to the Sea of Okhotsk. The returning branch is composed of the Liman, North Korea and Central (or Mid-) Japan Sea currents which bring fresh and cold water along the Asian coast to the south.</p><br>
<p>Water temperature is mostly affected by exchange with the atmosphere in the northern part of the sea and by the currents in the southern part. Winter temperatures are 0 &deg;C or below in the north and 10 - in the south. In this season, there is a significant temperature difference between the western and eastern parts owing to the circular currents. So at the latitude of Peter the Great Gulf, the water temperature is about 0 &deg;C in the west and 5 - in the east. This east-west difference drops to 1 - in summer, and the temperatures rise to 18 - in the north and 25 - in the south.</p><br>
<p>As a result of the enclosed nature of the sea, its waters form clearly separated layers which may show seasonal and spatial dependence. In winter, the temperature is almost constant with the depth in the northern part of the sea. However, in central-southern parts, it may be 8 - down to, 2 - at, 1.0 - at and then remain at about 0 &deg;C until the bottom. Heating by the sun and tropical monsoons increases the depth gradient in spring–summer.</p><br>
<p>In the north the surface layer (down to ) may heat up to 18 -. The temperature would sharply drop to 4 &deg;C at 50 m, then slowly decrease to 1 &deg;C at 250 m and remain so down to the seabed. On the contrary, the temperature in the south could gradually decrease to 6 &deg;C at 200 m, then to 2 &deg;C at 260 m and to 0.04 - at 1,000 -, but then it would rise to about 0.3 &deg;C near the bottom. This cold layer at about 1,000 m is formed by sinking of cold water in the northern part of the sea in winter and is brought south by the sea currents; it is rather stable and is observed all through the year.</p><br>
<p>The hydrological isolation of the Sea of Japan also results in slightly lower average water salinity (34.09‰, where ‰ means parts per thousand) compared with the Pacific Ocean. In winter, the highest salinity at 34.5‰ is observed in the south where evaporation dominates over precipitation. It is the lowest at 33.8‰ in the south-east and south-west because of frequent rains and remains at about 34.09‰ in most other parts.</p><br>
<p>Thawing of ice in spring reduces water salinity in the north, but it remains high at 34.60–34.70‰ in the south, partly because of the inflow of salty water through the Korea Strait. A typical variation of salinity across the sea in summer is 31.5‰ to 34.5‰ from north to south. The depth distribution of salinity is relatively constant. The surface layer tends to be more fresh in the sea parts which experience ice melting and rains. The average water density is in the north and in the south in winter. It lowers in summer to, respectively.</p><br>
<p>Few rivers flow into the Sea of Japan from mainland Asia, the largest being Tumen, Rudnaya, Samarga, Partizanskaya and Tumnin; all of them have mountainous character. In contrast, numerous large rivers flow from Honshū and Hokkaidō into the sea, including Japan’s four largest rivers in the Shinano, Ishikari, Agano and Mogami. The total annual river discharge into the sea is and is relatively constant through the year, except for a minor increase in July. Most water (97% or ) flows into the sea through the Korea Strait and discharges through the Tsugaru (64% or, La Pérouse ) and Korea straits. Rainfall, evaporation and riverine inflow make only 1% of the water balance. Between October and April, the outflow exceeds the inflow due to the lower income through the Korea Strait; this balance reverses between May and September.</p><br>
<p>The sea has complex tides, which are induced by the tidal wave of the Pacific Ocean penetrating through the Korea Strait and Tsugaru strait. The tides are semi-diurnal (rise twice a day) in the Korea Strait and in the northern part of the Strait of Tartary. They are diurnal at the eastern shore of Korea, Russian Far East and the Japanese islands of Honshū and Hokkaidō. Mixed tides occur in Peter the Great Gulf and Korea strait. The tidal waves have a speed of in the open sea. They accelerate in the Korea Strait, La Pérouse Strait and especially in the Tsugaru Strait.</p><br>
<p>The amplitude of the tides is relatively low and strongly varies across the sea. It reaches 3 meters in the south near the Korea Strait, but quickly drops northwards to at the southern tip of Korean Peninsula and to meters at the North Korean shores. Similar low tides are observed in Hokkaidō, Honshū and south Sakhalin. The amplitude however increases to toward the north of the Strait of Tartary due to its funnel-like shape. Apart from tides, the water level also experiences seasonal, monsoon-related variations across the entire sea with the highest levels observed in summer and lowest in winter. Wind may also locally change the water level by; for example, it is higher in summer at the Korean and lower at the Japanese coasts.</p><br>
<p>The sea waters have blue to green-blue color and a transparency of about. They are rich in dissolved oxygen, especially in the western and northern parts, which are colder and have more phytoplankton than the eastern and southern areas. The oxygen concentration is 95% of the saturation point near the surface, it decreases with the depth to about 70% at.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The high concentration of dissolved oxygen results in the rich aquatic life of the Sea of Japan – there are more than 800 species of aquatic plants and more than 3,500 animal species, including more than 900 species of crustaceans, about 1,000 of fish and 26 of mammals. The coastal areas contain several kg/m of biomass. Pelagic (oceanic) fishes include saury, mackerel, Jack mackerels, sardines, anchovies, herring, sea bream, squid and various species of salmon and trout. The demersal (sea-bottom) fishes include cod, pollock and Atka mackerel.</p><br>
<p>Mammals are represented by seals and whales (ancient name for the basin in Chinese was "Sea of Whales"</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Fishery had long been the main economic activity on the Sea of Japan. It is mainly carried out on and near the continental shelves and focuses on herring, sardines and bluefin tuna. These species are however depleted from after World War II. Squid is mostly caught near the sea center and salmon near the northern and southwestern shores. There is also a well-developed seaweed production.</p><br>
<p>The importance of the fishery in the sea is illustrated by the territorial disputes between Japan and South Korea over Liancourt Rocks and between Japan and Russia over the Kuril Islands. It is also reflected in various legends, such as the legend of the Heishi rock, which says that once when herring vanished, an old fairy threw a bottle with a magic water into the sea, and the herring returned. The bottle got stuck to the seabed and turned into a rock, which became a representation of the God of the Sea of Japan.</p><br>
<p>Vladivostok is a base for the Russian whaling fleet. Although it operates in the northern seas, its production is processed and partly distributed in the Vladivostok area. Vladivostok is also a terminal point of the Trans-Siberian Railway which brings much goods to and from this major port. There is a regular ferry service across the Strait of Tartary between the Russian continental port of Vanino and Kholmsk in Sakhalin.</p><br>
<p>The sea has magnetite sands as well as natural gas and petroleum fields near the northern part of Japan and Sakhalin Island. The intensity of shipments across the sea is moderate, owing to the cold relations between many bordering countries. As a result, the largest Japanese ports are located on the Pacific coast, and the significant ports on the Sea of Japan are Niigata, Tsuruta and Maizuru. Major South Korean ports are Busan, Ulsan, and Pohang situated on the southeastern coast of the Korean Peninsula, but they also mainly target countries not bordering the Sea of Japan.</p><br>
<p>The major Russian port of Vladivostok mainly serves inland cargos, whereas Nakhodka and Vostochny are more international and have a busy exchange with Japan and South Korea. Other prominent Russian ports are Sovetskaya Gavan, Alexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky and Kholmsk, and the major ports of North Korea are Wonsan, Hamhung and Chongjin. The intensity of shipments across the Sea of Japan is steadily increasing as a result of the growth of East Asian economies.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>For centuries, the sea had protected Japan from land invasions, particularly by the Mongols. It had long been navigated by Asian and, from the 18th century, by European ships. Russian expeditions of 1733–1743 mapped Sakhalin and the Japanese islands. In the 1780s, the Frenchman Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, traveled northward across the sea through the strait later named after him. In 1796, another Frenchman Robert Broughton explored the Strait of Tartary, the eastern coast of the Russian Far East and the Korean Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>In 1803–1806, the Russian navigator Adam Johann von Krusenstern while sailing across the globe in the ship Nadezhda also explored, in passing, the Sea of Japan and the eastern shores of Japanese islands. In 1849, another Russian explorer Gennady Nevelskoy discovered the strait between the continent and Sakhalin and mapped the northern part of the Strait of Tartary. Russian expeditions were made in 1853–1854 and 1886–1889 to measure the surface temperatures and record the tides. They also documented the cyclonal character of the sea currents.</p><br>
<p>Other notable expeditions of the 19th century include the American North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition (1853–1856) and British Challenger expedition (1872–1876). The aquatic life was described by V. K. Brazhnikov in 1899–1902 and P. Yu. Schmidt in 1903–1904. The Japanese scientific studies of the sea began only in 1915 and became systematic since the 1920s.</p><br>
<p>American and French whaleships cruised for whales in the sea between 1848 and 1892. Most entered the sea via Korea Strait and left via La Pérouse Strait, but some entered and exited via Tsugaru Strait. They primarily targeted right whales, but began catching humpbacks as right whale catches declined. They also made attempts to catch blue and fin whales, but these species invariably sank after being killed. Right whales were caught from March to August, with peak catches in May and June. During the peak years of 1848 and 1849 a total of over 150 vessels cruised in the Sea of Japan, with significantly lesser numbers in following years.</p><br>
<h2>Naming dispute</h2><br>
<p>The use of the term "Sea of Japan" as the dominant name is a point of contention. South Korea wants the name "East Sea" to be used, either instead of or in addition to "Sea of Japan;" while North Korea prefers the name "East Sea of Korea".</p><br>
<p>The primary issue in the dispute revolves around a disagreement about when the name "Sea of Japan" became the international standard. Japan claims the term has been the international standard since at least the early 19th century, while the Koreas claim that the term "Sea of Japan" arose later while Korea was under Japanese rule, and prior to that occupation other names such as "Sea of Korea" or "East Sea" were used in English. The International Hydrographic Organization, the international governing body for the naming bodies of water around the world, in 2012 recognized the term "Sea of Japan" as the only title for the sea, but will likely review the issue again in 2017.</p><br>
<p>Lake Teletskoye  is the largest lake in the Altai Mountains and the Altai Republic, Russia, and has depth up to 325 meters.</p><br>
<p>Situated at a height of 434 m above the sea level, the lake is 78 km long and 5 km wide and lies between the mountain ridges Korbu and Al-tyntu, on the junction of the Sailughem Mountains and the Western Sayans. Its surface area is 233 km&sup2 however, due to its considerable depth (325 m), the lake contains no less than 40 km³ (9.6 cubic miles) of fresh water. Annual water level fluctuations are estimated at some 348 sm. The lake transparency is high, with the visibility of the lake water ranging from six to fourteen meters.</p><br>
<p>About 70 rivers and 150 temporary streams flow into the lake, the largest of them, Chulyshman River, supplying more than half of the lakes water. The lake is drained through a single outlet, the Biya River, which, after its confluence with the Katun River, forms one of Siberias largest rivers, the Ob River.</p><br>
<p>The lake is surrounded by mountains of 600-1,300 m in the northern part and about 1,700 - in the southern part. Lake Teletskoe is included into Altaisky Nature Reserve. That reserve along with the Katun Nature Reserve and the Ukok Plateau Nature Refuge were listed as one of UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites under the name "Golden Mountains of Altai".</p><br>
<p>The Altai people have a legend about the name of the lake in their language, which means Golden Lake. According to this story, once, a rich man had an ingot of gold, which he wanted to use to buy food. He travelled around Altai, but could not find anyone who would sell him any food. Eventually, he threw the gold into the lake. This legend is the origin of the name.</p><br>
<h2>Research</h2><br>
<p>There is a field base of (Институт систематики и экологии животных СО РАН) by the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Сибирское отделение Российской академии наук) at the northwest part of the lake, about 6 km from head water of Biya River. Therein studies are performed of the insect-eaters and rodents of Altai Republic, helminthofauna of vertebrates in biocenoses of taiga, ichthyocenose and animal plankton of Lake Teletskoye. Near the base there is located the research-and-production sport-and-sanitary base of Gorno-Altaisk State University. Tomsk State University carries out its investigation more than 50 years. Many years here work ecologists from the Institute of Water and Ecological Problems (Институт водных и экологических проблем СО РАН) by the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and also geologists and archeologists from the Academy. Geomorphologists and geologists scrutinize geological structure of Lake Teletskoye, its paleogeography, age, and origin.</p><br>
<p>It has been known for a long time that there are gold in placers and bedrock deposits in the Altai. The Geomorphologists from Tomsk State University works in the Teletskoye geology-prospecting detachment. They managed to establish a new search criterion for a placer. The base for the discovery were the palaeoglaciological studies during the last few years and theoretical models of the morpholithogenesis. The content of the precious component is everywhere much higher than the lowest accepted industrial standard, sometimes it’s tremendous.</p><br>
<p>The investigators carried out large-scale exploration routes on vast territories near watersheds of the upper reaches of all the rivers in the northern and western parts of the Teletskoye Lake basin. These explorations included studies of exposures, boring of prospect-holes, pits and hollow wells (up to 15 m deep). The results of these investigations let us speak about the regularity and reliability of the new criterion. The first 14C-method data for the layered clays on the flat watersheds showed the age of 15 thousand years and younger. This important fact leads to an unavoidable conclusion about the youth of the Teletskoje Lake depression – the post-glacial age of “the last cutting” during the pre-glacial (Late Quaternary) peneplain.</p><br>
<p>Lake Zürich  is a lake in Switzerland, extending southeast of the city of Zürich. Depending on the context, Lake Zürich or Zürichsee can be used to describe the lake as a whole, or just that part of the lake downstream of the Seedamm at Rapperswil, whilst the part upstream of Rapperswil may be called the Obersee or Upper Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Zürich is formed by the Linth river, which rises in the glaciers of the Glarus Alps and was diverted by the Escher canal (completed in 1811) into Lake Walen from where its waters are carried to the east end of Lake Zürich by means of the Linth canal (completed in 1816). The waters of the Lake of Zürich flow out of the lake at its north-west end, passing through the city of Zürich; however, the outflow is then called the Limmat. The culminating point of the lake&#39;s drainage basin is the Tödi at 3,614 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<p>No streams of importance flow into the lake besides the Linth. The Seedamm, a partially artificial causeway and bridge, crosses a narrow point of the lake carrying a railway line and road from Rapperswil to Pfäffikon. The eastern section of the lake is known as the Obersee, German for "upper lake". West of this dam lie the small islands of Lützelau and Ufenau, where in 1523 Ulrich von Hutten took refuge and died. Both shores are well cultivated and fertile. Another touristic destination is the Au peninsula at the village of Au between Wädenswil and Horgen.</p><br>
<p>To the east – separated by Zürichberg-Adlisberg, Forch and Pfannenstiel – are two minor lakes: Greifensee (Lake Greifen) and Pfäffikersee (Lake Pfäffikon). Zimmerberg and the Etzel regions lie to the west.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, Lake Zürich is split between the cantons of Zürich, St. Gallen and Schwyz. The lower lake, to the west of the Seedamm, is largely in the canton of Zürich, whilst the upper lake is shared between the cantons of St. Gallen and Schwyz.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The lake was frozen in the following years</p><br>
<p>1223, 1259, 1262</p><br>
<p>1407, 1491</p><br>
<p>1514, 1517, 1573</p><br>
<p>1600, 1660, 1684, 1695</p><br>
<p>1709, 1716, 1718, 1740, 1755, 1763, 1789</p><br>
<p>1830, 1880, 1891, 1895</p><br>
<p>1929, 1963</p><br>
<h2>Population and transportation</h2><br>
<p>The three population and transportation centres are Zürich, Pfäffikon SZ and Rapperswil.</p><br>
<p>Besides Bürkliplatz in Zürich and the Seedamm, there are no bridges across the lake.</p><br>
<p>The Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft – the Lake Zürich Navigation Company – provides with its 17-passenger ships touristic services on Lake Zürich. There are a number of passenger ferry services, noticeably the Horgen–Meilen ferry, an auto ferry between Horgen and Meilen.</p><br>
<h2>Towns on the lake</h2><br>
<p>Zürich, at the north-western end of the lake, is the largest city on Lake Zürich.</p><br>
<p>On the west shore (which gradually becomes the south shore) are Rüschlikon, Thalwil, Horgen, Wädenswil, Richterswil, Pfäffikon, and Lachen.</p><br>
<p>On the opposite shore are Küsnacht, Meilen, Stäfa, and Rapperswil-Jona with the medieval town of Rapperswil, whose castle is home to the Polish museum. Schmerikon is close to the east end of the lake, and a little further east is the larger town of Uznach.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality</h2><br>
<p>Lake Zürichs water is very clean and reaches, during summer, temperatures well beyond 20 &deg;C. Swimming in the public baths and beaches is very popular. Historically, the best weather for swimming has been late August, with August 28 typically having the nicest weather at around 5:30pm. The lakes water is purified and fed into Zürich&#39;s water system; it is potable.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<h2>Prehistoric pile dwellings around Zürichsee</h2><br>
<p>The Prehistoric pile dwellings around Zürichsee comprises 11 of total 56 Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps in Switzerland, that are located around Zürichsee in the cantons of Schwyz, St. Gallen and Zürich.</p><br>
<p>Located on Zürichsee lakeshore, there are Freienbach–Hurden Rosshorn, Freienbach–Hurden Seefeld, Rapperswil-Jona/Hombrechtikon–Feldbach, Rapperswil-Jona–Technikum, Erlenbach–Winkel, Meilen–Rorenhaab, Wädenswil–Vorder Au, Zürich–Enge Alpenquai, Grosser Hafner and Kleiner Hafner. Because the lake has grown in size over time, the original piles are now around 4 m to 7 m under the water level of 406 m. Also on the small area of about 40 km&sup2; around Zürichsee, there also the settlements Greifensee–Storen/Wildsberg on Greifensee and Wetzikon–Robenhausen on Pfäffikersee lakeshore.</p><br>
<p>As well as being part of the 56 Swiss sites of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, each of these 11 prehistoric pile dwellings is also listed as a Class object in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance.</p><br>
<p>Montserrat is a multi-peaked rocky range located near the city of Barcelona, in Catalonia, Spain. It is part of the Catalan Pre-Coastal Range. The main peaks are Sant Jeroni , Montgrós  and Miranda de les Agulles .</p><br>
<p>It is well known as the site of the Benedictine abbey, Santa Maria de Montserrat, which hosts the Virgin of Montserrat sanctuary and which is identified by some with the location of the Holy Grail in Arthurian myth.</p><br>
<p>"Montserrat" literally means "saw (serrated, like the common handsaw) mountain" in Catalan. It describes its peculiar aspect with multitude of rock formations which are visible from a great distance. The mountain is composed of strikingly pink conglomerate, a form of sedimentary rock. Montserrat is Spain&#39;s first National Park.</p><br>
<p>In 1493, Christopher Columbus named the Caribbean island of Montserrat Santa Maria de Montserrate, after the Virgin of Montserrat.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The Benedictine Abbey can be reached by road, by the Aeri de Montserrat cable car, or by the Montserrat Rack Railway. The lower stations of both the rack railway and the cable car can be reached by Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya train from Barcelonas Plaça dEspanya station. From the abbey, the Funicular de Sant Joan funicular railway goes up to the top of the mountain, where there are various abandoned hovels in the cliff faces that were previously the abodes of reclusive monks, while the Funicular de la Santa Cova descends to a shrine.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking and climbing</h2><br>
<p>The highest summit of Montserrat is called Sant Jeroni (Saint Jerome) and stands at 1,236 m above sea-level. It is accessible by hiking trails which connect from the top entrance to the Sant Joan funicular, the monastery, or the base of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The Cavall Bernat 1,111 m is an important rock feature popular with climbers.</p><br>
<p>Chania  is the second largest city of Crete and the capital of the Chania regional unit. It lies along the north coast of the island, about 70 km west of Rethymno and 145 km west of Heraklion.</p><br>
<p>The official population of the municipal unit (the former municipality) is 53,910, while the municipality has 108,642 inhabitants (2011). This consists of the city of Chania and several other towns and villages, including Kounoupidiana (pop. 8,620), Mournies (pop. 7,614), Souda (pop. 6,418), Nerokouros (pop. 5,531), Daratsos (pop. 4,732), Perivolia (pop. 3,986), Galatas (pop. 3,166) and Aroni (pop. 3,003).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>Chania is the site of the Minoan settlement the Greeks called Kydonia, the source of the word quince. It appears on Linear B as ku-do-ni-ja. Some notable archaeological evidence for the existence of this Minoan city below some parts of todays Chania was found by excavations in the district of Kasteli in the Old Town. This area appears to have been inhabited since the Neolithic era. The city reemerged after the end of the Minoan period as an important city-state in Classical Greece, one whose domain extended from Chania Bay to the feet of the White Mountains. The first major wave of settlers from mainland Greece was by the Dorian Greeks who came around 1100 BC. Kydonia was constantly at war with other Cretan city-states such as Aptera, Phalasarna and Polyrrinia and was important enough for the Kydonians to be mentioned in Homers Odyssey (xix.200). In 69 BC, the Roman consul Caecilius Metellus defeated the Cretans and conquered Kydonia to which he granted the privileges of an independent city-state. Kydonia reserved the right to mint its own coins until the 3rd century AD.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine and Arab era</h3><br>
<p>The early Christian period under Byzantine rule (First Byzantine Period, 395–824 AD) and the rule of the Arabs, who called the settlement Al Hanim ("the Inn"), are not well documented. Under the Arabs, the Christian population was persecuted and moved to the mountains. The Byzantine Empire retook the city in 961 AD (Second Byzantine Period, until 1204 AD). In this period the Arabic name of the city was changed into Greek Chania. Byzantines began to strongly fortify the city in order to prevent another Arab invasion, using materials from the ancient buildings of the area. By this time Chania was the seat of a bishopric, which would be known under Venetian rule as Roman Catholic Diocese of La Canea and later become the Latin titular see of Cydonia.</p><br>
<h3>Venetian era</h3><br>
<p>After the Fourth Crusade (1204) and the fall of Byzantium in the Hellenic area, Crete was given to Bonifacio, Marquess of Montferrat. He in turn chose to sell it to the Venetians for 100 silver marks. In 1252 the Venetians managed to subdue the Cretans but in 1263, their rivals of Genoa, with local support, seized the city under the leadership of Enrico Pescatore, count of Malta, and held it until 1285, when the Venetians returned. Chania was chosen as the seat of the Rector (Administrator General) of the region and flourished as a significant commercial centre of a fertile agricultural region.</p><br>
<p>The Venetian rule was initially strict and oppressive but slowly the relations between the two parts improved. Contact with Venice led to close intertwining of Cretan and Venetian cultures, without, however, the Cretans losing their Greek Orthodox nature. The city&#39;s name became La Canea and its fortifications were strengthened, giving Chania the form that it still has today. On the other hand, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many priests, monks and artists took refuge in Crete and reinforced the Byzantine religion and culture on the island. The city of Chania during the period that followed was a blend of Byzantine, Venetian, and Classical Greek cultural elements. Many of the important buildings of the town were built during this era and the intellectual activities (written word, music, education) were also promoted.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman era</h3><br>
<p>The walls of the city did not prevent the Ottoman army from overrunning the city in 1645 after just two months siege. They seized Chania itself on 2 August 1645. Huge numbers died in the siege. Later, most churches were turned into mosques. The Muslims resided mainly in the eastern quarters, Kastelli and Splantzia, where they converted the Dominican church of St Nicholas into the central Sovereigns Mosque (Turkish: Hünkar Camısı). They also built new mosques such as the Küçük Hasan Pasha Mosque or Yali Mosque on the harbour. Public baths (hamam), and fountains were a feature of the Ottoman city. The pasha of Crete resided in Chania.</p><br>
<p>The Bishop of Kissamos, Melhisedek Despotakis, was hanged from a tree in Splantzia for participation in the revolutionary events. In 1878, the Pact of Halepa was signed. This was when a large part of the local Muslim population was killed or moved to Anatolia. There was no Muslim population left after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1922.</p><br>
<h3>Modern era</h3><br>
<p>In 1898, during the final moves towards independence and enosis—union with Greece—the Great Powers made Chania the capital of the semi-autonomous Cretan State ("Kritiki Politeia"), with Prince George of Greece, the High Commissioner of Crete living here. During these years Crete issued its own stamps and money. This was a very important transitional period when, no longer an isolated vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, the city became more cosmopolitan and flourishing, regaining its role as the crossroad of civilizations, influenced by Europe as well as by the East. Many important buildings were built during this era, intellectual and artistic societies were created and a new class of local aristocracy brought a different atmosphere to the everyday life of the town. The district of Halepa has many fine neoclassical embassies and consulates dating from this period.</p><br>
<p>However the main goal was enosis with Greece which came after Eleftherios Venizeloss constant opposition to Prince Georges rule over Crete. The series of conflicts includes the Therisos revolt in 1905, which overthrew Prince George and brought Alexandros Zaimis to rule Crete. Finally, in 1908, Venizelos managed to establish a revolutionary government, recognized by the Great Powers. His later election as the prime minister of Greece (1910) eventually led to Crete&#39;s union with Greece on 1 December 1913, following the Balkan Wars. The Greek flag was raised for the first time at Fort Firka in the Old Harbour in the presence of Venizelos and King Constantine.</p><br>
<p>Due to the popularity of Venizelos, Chania as with most of Crete remained staunchly pro-Venizelist, pro-Liberal and later pro Republican in the National Schism and the interwar period. The only attempt to overthrow the monarchist Metaxas Regime occurred in the city with the failed 28 July 1938 uprising.</p><br>
<h3>Chania in World War II</h3><br>
<p>Another important period for the city of Chania was the invasion and occupation by German forces during World War II. The British force that faced the German paratroopers during the Battle Of Crete in 1941, had artillery elements over the hill of Dexameni in the south of the city. These elements bombarded the German forces in the Maleme airfield undetected, until they ran out of ammunition. George II of Greece stayed in a villa near the village of Perivolia outside Chania before escaping to Egypt. Part of the city was bombed and a significant proportion of the area&#39;s population was either executed or imprisoned due to participation in the resistance against the German rule. The Jewish community of Chania was also eliminated during the German occupation. Most of them were transported off the island by the Nazi occupiers in 1944. Tragically, a British torpedo sank the ship Tanais, which was carrying most of the Jewish prisoners.</p><br>
<h3>Post-World War II era</h3><br>
<p>The city of Chania was slowly regaining its normal pace of development during the 1950s, trying to overcome the difficulties that the war had left as an aftermath. During the 1970s, Crete became a major tourist destination for Greek and international tourists, something that gave a significant boost to the city&#39;s economy and affected the everyday life and the overall culture of the locals. The capital of Crete was moved to Heraklion in 1971. Since the decade of 1990 the city of Chania entered a new era, because many constructions have been made, like a new airport, port, educational facilities and it is considered a prominent tourist resort in the Mediterranean Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The city of Chania lies around 40 km from the west end of Crete. By road, the distance is approximately 52 km.</p><br>
<h3>Cityscape</h3><br>
<p>The city of Chania can be divided into two parts: the old town and the modern city which is the larger one. The old town is situated next to the old harbour and is the matrix around which the whole urban area was developed. It used to be surrounded by the old Venetian fortifications that started to be built in 1538. Of them, only the eastern and western parts have survived. From the south, the old town is continuous with the new, and from the north the physical border is the sea. The centre of the modern city is the area extending next to the old town and especially towards the south.</p><br>
<h4>The old town</h4><br>
<p>The borders of the Old Town are the mostly destroyed old Venetian wall (and bulwarks) and this has been the cradle of all the civilizations which were developed in the area. The central part of the old town is named Kasteli and has been inhabited since Neolithic times. It is located on a small hill right next to the seafront and has always been the ideal place for a settlement due to its secure position, its location next to the harbour and its proximity to the fertile valley in the south. Nowadays it is a bit more quiet than the neighbouring areas of the west part of the district. The Splantzia quarter (next to the east part of Kasteli) is also largely untouched.</p><br>
<p>The main square of the Old Town (next to the west end of Kasteli) is Eleftherios Venizelos Square, also known as Syntrivani (from Turkish şadırvan fountain). It is the heart of the touristic activities in the area. Next to this (on the west side) lies the Topanas district, which was the Christian quarter during the Ottoman period. Its name comes from the Venetian ammunition warehouse (Turkish tophane), which was located there. The Jewish quarter (Evraiki or Ovraiki) was located at the north-west of the Old Town, behind the harbour and within the borders of Topanas. The whole Topanas area is generally picturesque, with many narrow alleys and old buildings, some of which have been restored as hotels, restaurants, shops and bars. This makes it a popular place especially during the warm period (April–October). In the winter, it still remains a centre of activities (especially for nightlife).</p><br>
<p>Finally, a very distinctive area of the Old Town is the harbour itself and generally the seafront ("akti"). Akti Tompazi, Akti Kountouriotou and Akti Enoseos (marina) all feature several historical buildings and a nightlife district. The main street that combines the modern town with the old town is Halidon Str.</p><br>
<h4>The modern city</h4><br>
<p>The modern part of Chania is where most locals live and work. It is less traditional than the old town, but there are still areas of some historical interest. The oldest district (early 18th century) of the modern city is Nea Hora (meaning "New Town") which is located beyond the west end of the old town. It is a developing area, but also a very picturesque one, with narrow old lanes leading to a small fishing harbour. During the same era the district of Halepa began to grow to the east of the city and used to be home for the local aristocracy. Some of the historical buildings of the area (including old embassies of foreign countries) had been destroyed or abandoned during the later decades of the 20th century, and it was only recently when some interest was shown for the restoration of the remaining ones.</p><br>
<p>Other historical buildings in the area include Eleftherios Venizelos’s House (built 1876-1880), the old French school (now property of the Technical University of Crete, housing the Department of Architecture), the Church of Agia Magdalini (built 1901-1903), The “Palace” (built 1882, house of Prince George during the period of the Cretan independence) and The Church of Evangelistria (built 1908–1923). Part of the marine area of Halepa is called Tabakaria, where a unique architectural complex of old leather processing houses is situated. The district of Koum Kapi (the Venetians had first named it "Sabbionara", which means "the Gate of the Sand", the same as "Koum Kapi") situated beyond the walls at the eastern part of the old town, was also one of the first places to be inhabited outside the fortification walls. Initially, it was home for the "Halikoutes", a group of Bedouins from North Africa who had settled there in the last years of Ottoman rule. Nowadays it is a developing area with many trendy cafes, bars and restaurants on its beach.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the previously mentioned older districts of the modern part of the town, several new residential areas have been developed during the 20th century, like Agios Ioannis, Koumbes, Lentariana etc. Some part—but not the biggest—of the city centre is dominated by colourless medium-height block buildings, typical of the urbanization period of Greece (1950&ndash;1970). However, there are still some beautiful neoclassical houses, especially in the eastern part of Chania and some of the neighbourhoods surrounding the centre are quite picturesque. There are some parks and several sports grounds, the most important being the Venizeleio Stadium of Chania and the Swimming Pool at Nea Hora. The 1913 indoor market ("Agora"), a large building based on the market of Marseille, is on the edge of the old town and is popular with tourists and locals alike. Some other important sites of the newer urban area are The Court House ("Dikastiria", built late in the 19th century), the Public Gardens ("Kipos", created in 1870), the Garden Clock-Tower ("Roloi", built in 1924–1927), the Episcopal Residence (Bishop&#39;s residence, "Despotiko", built in the early 19th century) and the House of Manousos Koundouros (built in 1909), the Cultural Centre ("Pnevmatiko Kentro"). The central largest squares in Chania are the Market Square ("Agora"), the Court House Square ("Dikastiria") and the "1866 Square".</p><br>
<p>In the last two decades there has been a profound movement of Chania residents towards the suburbs, as well as towards areas around the city which used to be rural, mainly the Akrotiri Peninsula.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The city has a typical Mediterranean climate (Koppen: Csa), with sunny dry summers and mild rainy winters. During the period between April and October, clear-sky weather is almost an everyday feature. The atmosphere is always warm, but fierce heat waves (temperatures above 38 °C) are not very common, since the prevailing Etesian winds ("Meltemia") blow from northern directions and pleasantly moderate the conditions. Intervals of sunny days are frequent during the windy and rainy winter as well. Snow and frost are rare near the coast, with very few exceptions, like the snowstorm on 13 February 2004, when 25 - of snow accumulated in the urban area, causing general chaos. However, such cold days can be followed by much warmer and sunny weather. Even minor early heat waves can occur in March or April, during a Saharan dust event, whose main feature is the strong and hot katabatic wind from the south, which is a type of Sirokos (σιρόκος) and is called "Livas" (i.e. the wind from Libya) by the Greeks.</p><br>
<p>The chart to the right is based on data recorded during 1958–1997. Absolute maximum temperature ever recorded was 42.5 &deg;C, while absolute minimum ever recorded was 0 &deg;C. However, the record minimum was broken on 13 February 2004 when the temperature reached -1 &deg;C at midday.</p><br>
<h3>Topography</h3><br>
<p>The climate in Chania is further complemented due to the terrain and can vary throughout its regions and elevations and according to its topography. At the south lies the mountain range of Lefka Ori. Furthermore, prevailing winds, such as those of the West side and South of Crete, in addition to the North side - all interact to form its climate.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The municipality of Chania was formed in the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following seven former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Akrotiri</p><br>
<p>Chania</p><br>
<p>Eleftherios Venizelos</p><br>
<p>Keramia</p><br>
<p>Nea Kydonia</p><br>
<p>Souda</p><br>
<p>Theriso</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 351.306 km&sup2, the municipal unit 12.564 km&sup2;. The municipality forms the eastern shore of Chania Bay (Kolpos Chanion Κόλπος Χανίων) and is bordered by Platanias (6) to the west, Sfakia (7) to the south and Apokoronas (2) to the east.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>There are several museums, art galleries, theatre and music groups, educational and research institutions within the city.</p><br>
<p>The most important museums in Chania are:</p><br>
<p>Archeological Museum of Chania in Saint Francis Monastery. It houses findings from different parts of the county and from several historical and prehistorical periods of the local history (Neolithic to Roman)</p><br>
<p>Folklore Museum (Old Town)</p><br>
<p>Historical Archive (the second most important in Greece)</p><br>
<p>Nautical Museum of Crete (Old Town)</p><br>
<p>Municipal Art Gallery</p><br>
<p>Byzantine/Post-Byzantine Collection (Old Town)</p><br>
<p>House of Eleftherios Venizelos</p><br>
<p>War Museum</p><br>
<p>Museum of Chemistry</p><br>
<p>School life museum</p><br>
<p>Museum of Typography, Chania</p><br>
<p>Several theatre groups are active in Chania with the most important being the Municipal and Regional Theatre of Crete (DI.PE.THE.K). The repertoire includes old and contemporary plays from Greek and foreign writers. The Venizelian Conservatory of Music ("Odeion", established 1931) is also one of the most important cultural societies in Crete. A recent attempt from the municipality to create a chamber music group named "Sinfonietta" has been successful and its performances throughout the year have enriched the cultural event calendar of the city. There is also a significant community of people who focus on alternative/indie music as well as jazz and some interesting bands performing modern musical styles. A number of traditional musicians are also active in town.</p><br>
<p>There are five cinemas (two of them open-air), concentrating both in commercial and independent movies and occasionally organizing small festivals.</p><br>
<p>During the summer period a variety of cultural events take place on a daily basis. Theatrical plays, concerts and several exhibitions from Greek and foreign artists are organized either by the municipality or by individuals. A venue which hosts many of these events is a theater located in the east bulwark of the Old Town ("Anatoliki Tafros"). Also, several festivals, conferences and sport events take place in Chania, especially between May and September. The Venizeleia athletics competition is one of the most noteworthy events of the year.</p><br>
<p>A major role in the city&#39;s cultural life is played by the Municipal Cultural Corporation of Chania (DI.P.E.X.) which organizes a significant part of the events taking place throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>There are a French, a German, an Italian and a Swedish consulate in Chania.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Water sports are very popular in Chania. The local water polo team, Nautical Club of Chania, N.O.X. has managed to be a protagonist in the primary league of the Greek national championship for years. Several athletes of this team have also played extensively for the Greek national team which has achieved major international successes.</p><br>
<p>Football and basketball are also very popular in the town, however not as successful. The main football teams are "A.O.X" (Sports Club of Chania). and "Ionia". The main clubs for athletics are "Eleftherios Venizelos" and "Kydon". The "Antisfairisi" club is specialized in tennis, table tennis and also has a significant tradition in chess. Many of the above sports are being practiced in the National Stadium of Chania, built in 1935 with the financial support of Elena Venizelou, then wife of Eleftherios Venizelos.</p><br>
<p>There is also an open swimming pool for water sports in Nea Chora. A new indoor one which has been built on the nearby Akrotiri Peninsula in 2006, but has not opened to the public yet because of the estimated operational costs. A modern indoor stadium for basketball, volleyball and more, called Chania Kladissos Indoor Hall, has also been built between 2002 and 2005 near Nea Chora (Kladisos area). Platanias of Chania has gained 36 points in the soccer championship in 2013.</p><br>
<p>There is a very active climbing and hiking club (Greek Mountaineering Club of Chania, E.O.S. Chanion) organizing weekly excursions of varying difficulty on the mountains of Crete and several other longer term missions in mainland Greece and abroad.</p><br>
<h2>Education and research</h2><br>
<p>Educational institutions located at the greater area of the city are:</p><br>
<p>Technical University of Crete</p><br>
<p>The Chania branch of the Technological Educational Institute of Crete</p><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania</p><br>
<p>The Merchant Marine Academy of Crete (AEN KRITIS)</p><br>
<p>Other research and intellectual institutes and societies in Chania are:</p><br>
<p>The National Research Foundation "Eleftherios K. Venizelos"</p><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Architecture Centre (KAM)</p><br>
<p>The Institute of Olive Tree and Subtropical Plants of Chania</p><br>
<p>The Institute of Cretan Law</p><br>
<p>The Historical, Laographical and Archaeological Society of Crete</p><br>
<p>Institute of Regional Press, Chania</p><br>
<p>Primary and secondary schools are mainly public in Chania (as in all cities in Greece). However, there has been a slow development of some private high schools recently. Among the "Eniaia Lykeia" (Unified Upper Secondary Schools) of the town there is an autonomous Ecclesiastical Lyceum in Agios Mattheos.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Two main sources of wealth in Chania are agriculture and tourism. A big portion of the city&#39;s residents (not necessarily farmers) own from few to many decares of agricultural land where several plants are being cultivated, the most popular ones being olive trees and citrus. Other important products include wine, avocados, dairy etc. Apart from the traditional ways of cultivation, some of the producers have concentrated on practicing new methods in order to promote organic food. The organization of the Agricultural August has been a recent attempt to promote local quality products including a series of activities organised by the Prefecture of Chania since 1999 has proved very successful.</p><br>
<p>On the other hand, starting from the early 1970s, tourism has developed rapidly. Nowadays the tertiary sector is becoming more and more important for the locals, since an increasing number of them are participating in the business. Agrotourism and ecotourism are forms of tourism which are significantly developing lately.</p><br>
<p>There is also some secondary industry with focus on the processing-packaging of agricultural products (some of them export oriented) or manufacture products that support the agricultural production.</p><br>
<p>An important centre of the economic activities in the town is the Chania Chamber of Commerce and Industry (E.B.E.X.).</p><br>
<h2>Health care</h2><br>
<p>The main hospital in the city is the General Hospital "Agios Georgios". Other health institutions include the Crete Naval Hospital, the branch of the National Centre for Emergency Medical Care (E.K.A.B.) and the Clinic of Chronic Disease. The Chania branch of the Organisation Against Drugs (Ο.ΚΑ.ΝΑ.) opened in 2003.</p><br>
<p>There is also a number of private clinics (e.g. Iasis and Central Clinic of Chania) as well as medical centres specialising in various areas within the city.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>The city is served by Chania International Airport (IATA code: CHQ) on the Akrotiri Peninsula. The airport is named after Daskalogiannis, a Sfakiot hero who was skinned by the Ottomans in the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>There are several flights a day from Athens to Chania, with Aegean Airlines and Olympic Airlines. From April-early November, there are many direct charter flights to Chania from the United Kingdom, Germany, Scandinavia, the Netherlands and other European countries.</p><br>
<p>Souda, some 7 km from Chania, is the city&#39;s port, with daily ferries to Piraeus and a hosting a major Greek and NATO naval base.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Elpis Melena (1818–1899), born as Marie Espérance von Schwartz, German writer</p><br>
<p>Eleftherios Venizelos (1864–1936), prime minister of Greece 1910–1920, 1924, 1928–1932, 1933; widely considered as the most important statesman of modern Greece</p><br>
<p>Constantinos Manos (1869–1913), politician and writer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries</p><br>
<p>Alexis Minotis (1898–1990), famous stage and screen actor active between the 1930s–1980s</p><br>
<p>Manos Katrakis (1909–1984), famous theater and film actor</p><br>
<p>Constantine Mitsotakis (1918–2017), politician, prime minister of Greece 1990–1993, and later the honorary president of the New Democracy party</p><br>
<p>George Psychoundakis (1920–2006), Cretan WW II hero and author</p><br>
<p>John Craxton (1922–2009), painter and British honorary consul</p><br>
<p>Kostas Moundakis (1926–1991), traditional Cretan music composer, Cretan lyra virtuoso and teacher</p><br>
<p>Maro Douka (1947–), Greek novelist</p><br>
<p>Ioanna Karystiani (1952–), Greek novelist</p><br>
<p>Christos Sartzetakis (1929–), President of the Third Hellenic Republic from 1985 to 1990</p><br>
<p>Mikis Theodorakis (1925–), Greek composer</p><br>
<p>Manos Hatzidakis (1925–1994), Greek composer</p><br>
<p>Nikos Christodoulakis (1952–), Greek politician, economics professor and electronics engineer, Minister for Economy and Finance of Greece from 2001 to 2004</p><br>
<p>Nana Mouskouri (1934–), Greek singer, one of the top-selling female singers of all time</p><br>
<p>Constantinos Daskalakis (1981–), professor at M.I.T. who managed at the age of 28 to improve the Nash equilibrium, an unsolved enigma for 60 years</p><br>
<p>John Aniston (born in 1933), actor and father of well-known American actress Jennifer Aniston</p><br>
<p>Eftichios Vlahakis (1935-2014), Greek-American entrepreneur</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<p>Chania is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Paphos, Cyprus</p><br>
<p>Wellington, New Zealand</p><br>
<p>Žilina, Slovakia</p><br>
<p>Heraklion  is the largest city and the administrative capital of the island of Crete. It is the fourth largest city in Greece and the third largest urban area in Greece. According to the results of the 2011 census, the population of the city proper was 140,730 inhabitants, the municipality&#39;s was 173,993 while the Heraklion urban area has a population of 225,574 and it extends over an area of 684.3 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Heraklion is the capital of Heraklion regional unit.</p><br>
<p>The Bronze Age palace of Knossos, also known as the Palace of Minos, is located nearby.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The Arab raiders from Andalusia (Iberia) who founded the Emirate of Crete moved the islands capital from Gortyna to a new castle they called rabḍ al-ḫandaq (ربض الخندق) Castle of the Moat in the 820s. This was hellenized as Χάνδαξ (Khándax) or Χάνδακας (Khándakas) and Latinized as Candia&#39;, which was taken into other European languages: in Italian and Latin as Candia, in French as Candie, in English as Candy, all of which could refer to the island of Crete as a whole as well as to the city alone; the Ottoman name was Kandiye.</p><br>
<p>After the Byzantine reconquest, the city was locally known as Megalo Kastro (Μεγάλο Κάστρο, Big Castle in Greek) or Castro and its inhabitants were called Kastrinoi or Castrini (castle-dwellers in Greek).</p><br>
<p>The ancient name Ηράκλειον was revived in the 19th century and comes from the nearby Roman port of Heracleum ("Heracles&#39;s city"), whose exact location is unknown. English usage formerly preferred the classicizing transliterations "Heraklion" or "Heraclion", but the form "Iraklion" is becoming more common.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Heraklion is close to the ruins of the palace of Knossos, which in Minoan times was the largest centre of population on Crete. Though there is no archaeological evidence of it, Knossos might well have had a port at the site of Heraklion as early as 2000 BC.</p><br>
<h3>Founding</h3><br>
<h3>Emirate of Crete</h3><br>
<p>The present city of Heraklion was founded in 824 by the Arabs under Abu Hafs Umar who had been expelled from Al-Andalus by Emir Al-Hakam I and had taken over the island from the Eastern Roman Empire. They built a moat around the city for protection, and named the city ربض الخندق, rabḍ al-ḫandaq ("Castle of the Moat"). It became the capital of the Emirate of Crete (ca. 827–961). The Saracens allowed the port to be used as a safe haven for pirates who operated against Imperial (Byzantine) shipping and raided Imperial territory around the Aegean.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine era</h3><br>
<p>In 960, Byzantine forces under the command of Nikephoros Phokas, later to become Emperor, landed in Crete and attacked the city. After a prolonged siege, the city fell in March 961. The Saracen inhabitants were slaughtered, the city looted and burned to the ground. Soon rebuilt, the town was renamed Χάνδαξ, Chandax, and remained under Greek control for the next 243 years.</p><br>
<h3>Venetian era</h3><br>
<p>In 1204, the city was bought by the Republic of Venice as part of a complicated political deal which involved, among other things, the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade restoring the deposed Eastern Roman Emperor Isaac II Angelus to his throne. The Venetians improved on the ditch of the city by building enormous fortifications, most of which are still in place, including a giant wall, in places up to 40 m thick, with 7 bastions, and a fortress in the harbour. Chandax was renamed Candia and became the seat of the Duke of Candia, and the Venetian administrative district of Crete became known as "Regno di Candia" (Kingdom of Candia). The city retained the name of Candia for centuries and the same name was often used to refer to the whole island of Crete as well. To secure their rule, Venetians began in 1212 to settle families from Venice on Crete. The coexistence of two different cultures and the stimulus of Italian Renaissance led to a flourishing of letters and the arts in Candia and Crete in general, that is today known as the Cretan Renaissance.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman era</h3><br>
<p>During the Cretan War (1645–1669), the Ottomans besieged the city for 21 years, from 1648 to 1669, perhaps the longest siege in history. In its final phase, which lasted for 22 months, 70,000 Turks, 38,000 Cretans and slaves and 29,088 of the city&#39;s Christian defenders perished. The Ottoman army under an Albanian grand vizier, Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha conquered the city in 1669. Under the Ottomans, the city was known officially as Kandiye (again also applied to the whole island of Crete) but informally in Greek as Megalo Castro (Μεγάλο Κάστρο; "Big Castle"). During the Ottoman period, the harbour silted up, so most shipping shifted to Chania in the west of the island.</p><br>
<h3>Modern era</h3><br>
<p>In 1898, the autonomous Cretan State was created, under Ottoman suzerainty, with Prince George of Greece as its High Commissioner and under international supervision. During the period of direct occupation of the island by the Great Powers (1898–1908), Candia was part of the British zone. At this time, the city was renamed "Heraklion", after the Roman port of Heracleum ("Heracles&#39; city"), whose exact location is unknown.</p><br>
<p>In 1913, with the rest of Crete, Heraklion was incorporated into the Kingdom of Greece. Heraklion became capital of Crete in 1971, replacing Chania.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and urban sculpture</h2><br>
<p>At the port of the city dominate the Venetian constructions, such as the Koules Fortress (Rocca al Mare), the ramparts and the arsenal.</p><br>
<p>Around the city can be found several sculptures, statues and busts commemorating significant events and figures of the citys and islands history, like El Greco, Vitsentzos Kornaros, Nikos Kazantzakis and Eleftherios Venizelos.</p><br>
<p>Also, many fountains of the Venetian-era are preserved, such as the Bembo fountain, the Priuli fountain, Palmeti fountain, Sagredo fountain and Morosini fountain (in Lions Square).</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Heraklion was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 5 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Gorgolainis</p><br>
<p>Heraklion</p><br>
<p>Nea Alikarnassos</p><br>
<p>Paliani</p><br>
<p>Temenos</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 244.613 km, the municipal unit 109.026 km.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<h3>Port</h3><br>
<p>Heraklion is an important shipping port and ferry dock. Travellers can take ferries and boats from Heraklion to destinations including Santorini, Ios Island, Paros, Mykonos, and Rhodes. There are direct ferries to Naxos, Karpathos, Kasos, Sitia, Anafi, Chalki and Diafani. There are also several daily ferries to Piraeus, the port of Athens in mainland Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Airport</h3><br>
<p>Heraklion International Airport, or Nikos Kazantzakis Airport is located about 5 km east of the city. The airport is named after Heraklion native Nikos Kazantzakis, a writer and a philosopher. It is the second busiest airport of Greece and the 67th in Europe, because of Crete being a major holiday destination with 6.742.746 travellers in 2016 List of the busiest airports in Europe.</p><br>
<p>The airfield is shared with the 126th Combat Group of the Hellenic Air Force.</p><br>
<p>A project for the new airport of Heraklion in Kasteli area is starting at the end of 2017</p><br>
<h3>Highway network</h3><br>
<p>European route E75 runs through the city and connects Heraklion with the three other major cities of Crete: Agios Nikolaos, Chania, and Rethymno.</p><br>
<h3>Public transit</h3><br>
<p>There are a number of buses serving the city (more information visit ) and connecting it to many major destinations in Crete.</p><br>
<h3>Railway</h3><br>
<p>From 1922 to 1937, there was a working industrial railway, which connected the Koules in Heraklion to Xiropotamos for the construction of the harbor.</p><br>
<p>A study from the year 2000 investigated the feasibility of two tram lines in Heraklion. The first line would link the Stadium to the airport, and the second the center of Heraklion and Knossos. No approval has yet been given for this proposal.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 2007, at the Congress of Cretan emigrants, held in Heraklion, two qualified engineers, George Nathenas (from Gonies, Malevizi Province) and Vassilis Economopoulos, recommended the development of a railway line in Crete, linking Chania, Rethymno and Heraklion, with a total journey time of 50 minutes (30 minutes between Heraklion and Rethymno, 20 minutes from Chania to Rethymno) and with provision for extensions to Kissamos, Kastelli Pediados (for the planned new airport), and Agios Nikolaos. No plans exist for implementing this idea.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Heraklion has a hot-summer-Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Köppen climate classification). Summers are warm to hot and dry with clear skies. Dry hot days are often relieved by seasonal breezes. Winters are very mild with moderate rain. Because Heraklion is further south than Athens, it has a milder climate. The maximum temperature during the summer period is usually not more than 28 - 30°C (Athens normal maximum temperature is about 6°C hotter). The minimum temperature record is +0.2 °C</p><br>
<p>A new temperature record for February was set at 27.8°C, reached on 15 February 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Colleges, universities, libraries, and research centers</h2><br>
<p>University of Crete</p><br>
<p>TEI of Crete</p><br>
<p>Foundation for Research & Technology - Hellas</p><br>
<p>Nicolas Kitsikis Library</p><br>
<p>Vikelaia Library http://www.heraklion.gr/en/municipality/vikelaia</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Museums</h3><br>
<p>Heraklion Archaeological Museum</p><br>
<p>Cretaquarium</p><br>
<p>Historical Museum of Crete</p><br>
<p>Natural History Museum</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Crete and National Resistance Museum</p><br>
<p>Nikos Kazantzakis Museum</p><br>
<p>Lychnostatis Open Air Museum</p><br>
<p>Collection of Agia Aikaterini of Sinai</p><br>
<p>Museum of Visual Arts</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>The city is home to several sports clubs. Most notably, Heraklion hosts OFI and Ergotelis, two football clubs with earlier presence in the Greek Superleague, the top tier of the Greek football league system. Furthermore, the city is the headquarters of the Heraklion Football Clubs Association, which administers football in the entire region. Other notable sport clubs include Iraklio B.C. (basketball), Atsalenios (football) and Irodotos (football) in the suburbs of Atsalenio and Nea Alikarnassos respectively.</p><br>
<h3>Famous natives</h3><br>
<p>Heraklion has been the home town of some of Greece&#39;s most significant spirits, including the novelist Nikos Kazantzakis (perhaps best known for his novel Zorba the Greek), the poet and Nobel Prize winner Odysseas Elytis and the world-famous painter Domenicos Theotokopoulos (El Greco).</p><br>
<h4>Literature</h4><br>
<p>Elli Alexiou (1894–1988) author</p><br>
<p>Minás Dimákis (1913–1980) poet</p><br>
<p>Odysseas Elytis (1911–1996) Nobel awarded poet</p><br>
<p>Tess Fragoulis, Greek-Canadian author</p><br>
<p>Rea Galanaki (1947–present) author</p><br>
<p>Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi (1749–1798), author and diplomat</p><br>
<p>Nikos Kazantzakis (1883–1957) author</p><br>
<p>Pedro de Candia, (1485–1542) author and travel writer, recorded the Spanish Conquest of the Americas</p><br>
<p>Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613) author</p><br>
<p>Stephanos Sahlikis (1330-after 1391) poet</p><br>
<p>Lili Zografou (1922–1998) author</p><br>
<h4>Scientists and scholars</h4><br>
<p>Nicholas Kalliakis (1645–1707) Greek Cretan scholar and philosopher</p><br>
<p>Niccolò Comneno Papadopoli (1655–1740) lawyer, historian and librarian</p><br>
<p>Andreas Musalus (ca. 1665–1721) Greek Cretan professor of mathematics, philosopher and architectural theorist</p><br>
<p>Francesco Barozzi (1537–1604) mathematician and astronomer</p><br>
<p>Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (1591-1655) rabbi, author, physician, mathematician and musical theorist</p><br>
<p>Fotis Kafatos biologist, President of the European Research Council</p><br>
<p>Spyros Kokotos (1933–present) architect</p><br>
<p>Maximos Margunios (1549–1602) scholar, theologian, poet and writer, titular bishop of Kythira</p><br>
<p>Marcus Musurus (Markos Mousouros) (1470–1517) scholar and philosopher</p><br>
<p>Peter of Candia also known as Antipope Alexander V: philosopher and scholar</p><br>
<p>Joseph Sifakis (1946–present) computer scientist, co-recipient of the 2007 Turing Award</p><br>
<p>Michael N. Katehakis (1952–present) applied mathematician and operations researcher at Rutgers University</p><br>
<p>Gerasimos Vlachos (1607–1685), scholar</p><br>
<p>Simone Stratigo (ca. 1733–1824), Greek mathematician and an Nautical science expert, whose family was from Heraklion (Candia)</p><br>
<h4>Painting and sculpture</h4><br>
<p>Theophanes (ca.1500–1559) painter of icons</p><br>
<p>Michael Damaskinos (1530/35-1592/93) painter of icons</p><br>
<p>El Greco (1541–1614) mannerist painter, sculpturer and architect</p><br>
<p>Theodoros Poulakis (1622–1692) painter of icons</p><br>
<p>Andreas Ritzos (1422–1492) painter of icons</p><br>
<p>Emmanuel Tzanes (1610–1690) painter of icons</p><br>
<p>Aristidis Vlassis (1947–2015) painter</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Volanakis (1837–1907) painter</p><br>
<h4>Film industry</h4><br>
<p>Rika Diallina (1934-), actress and model, Miss Hellas</p><br>
<p>Ilya Livykou (1919–2002), actress</p><br>
<p>Sapfo Notara (1907–1985), actress</p><br>
<p>Yannis Smaragdis (1946-), film director</p><br>
<h4>Music</h4><br>
<p>Rena Kyriakou (1918–1994) pianist</p><br>
<p>Francisco Leontaritis (Francesco Londarit) (1518–1572) composer</p><br>
<p>Giannis Markopoulos (1939-) composer</p><br>
<p>Manolis Rasoulis (1945–2011) lyrics writer</p><br>
<p>Nikos Xilouris (1936–1980) composer and singer</p><br>
<p>Notis Sfakianakis (1959-) singer</p><br>
<h4>Sports</h4><br>
<p>Nikos Machlas (1973-) footballer</p><br>
<p>Georgios Samaras (1985-) footballer</p><br>
<p>Greg Massialas (1956-), American fencer and fencing coach</p><br>
<h4>Business</h4><br>
<p>Constantine Corniaktos (1517–1603) wine merchant and wealthiest man in the Eastern European city of Lviv</p><br>
<p>Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki (1955-) business woman, lawyer and politician</p><br>
<h4>Politics</h4><br>
<p>Leonidas Kyrkos (1924–2011), politician</p><br>
<p>Aristidis Stergiadis (1861–1950) High Commissioner of Smyrna</p><br>
<p>Georgios Voulgarakis (1959-) conservative politician</p><br>
<h4>Law</h4><br>
<p>Romilos Kedikoglou (1940-) President of the Court of Cassation of Greece</p><br>
<h4>Clergy</h4><br>
<p>Maximos Margunios (1549–1602), bishop of Cyrigo (Kythira)</p><br>
<p>Kyrillos Loukaris (1572–1637) theologian, Pope & Patriarch of Alexandria as Cyril III and Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as Cyril I</p><br>
<p>Meletius Pegas, Pope & Patriarch of Alexandria</p><br>
<p>Theodore II (1954-) Pope & Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa</p><br>
<p>Peter Phillarges (ca. 1339–1410) (also Pietro Di Candia, later Pope Alexander V)</p><br>
<h4>Fashion</h4><br>
<p>Maria Spiridaki (1984) fashion model and television presenter</p><br>
<h4>Local TV stations</h4><br>
<p>Channel 4</p><br>
<p>Creta Channel</p><br>
<p>Kriti TV</p><br>
<p>MyTV</p><br>
<h4>Local transport services</h4><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Consulates</h3><br>
<h3>Twin towns and sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Heraklion is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Limassol, Cyprus</p><br>
<p>Odessa, Ukraine (1992)</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Menorca or Minorca  is one of the Balearic Islands located in the Mediterranean Sea belonging to Spain. Its name derives from its size, contrasting it with nearby Majorca.</p><br>
<p>Menorca has a population of approximately 94,383 (2010). It is located 39°47 to 40°00N, 3°52 to 4°24E. Its highest point, called El Toro or Monte Toro, is 358 m above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island is known for its collection of megalithic stone monuments: navetes, taules and talaiots, which speak of a very early prehistoric human activity. Some of the earliest culture on Menorca was influenced by other Mediterranean cultures, including the Greek Minoans of ancient Crete (see also Gymnesian Islands). For example, the use of inverted plastered timber columns at Knossos is thought to have influenced early peoples of Menorca in imitating this practice.</p><br>
<p>The end of the Punic wars saw an increase in piracy in the western Mediterranean. The Roman occupation of Hispania had meant a growth of maritime trade between the Iberian and Italian peninsulas. Pirates took advantage of the strategic location of the Balearic Islands to raid Roman commerce, using both Menorca and Majorca as bases. In reaction to this, the Romans invaded Menorca. By 123 BC both islands were fully under Roman control, later being incorporated into the province of Hispania Citerior.</p><br>
<p>In 13 BC Roman emperor Augustus reorganised the provincial system and the Balearic Islands became part of the Tarraconensis imperial province. The ancient town of Mago was transformed from a Carthaginian town to a Roman town.</p><br>
<h3>Jews of Menorca</h3><br>
<p>The island had a Jewish population. The Letter on the Conversion of the Jews by a 5th century bishop named Severus tells of the forced conversion of the island&#39;s 540 Jewish men and women in AD 418. Several Jews, including Theodore, a rich representative Jew who stood high in the estimation of his coreligionists and of Christians alike, underwent baptism. The act of conversion brought about, within a previously peaceful coexisting community, the expulsion of the ruling Jewish elite into the bleak hinterlands, the burning of synagogues, and the gradual reinstatement of certain Jewish families after the forced acceptance of Christianity, allowing the survival of those Jewish families who had not already perished. Many Jews remained within the Jewish faith while outwardly professing Christian faith. Some of these Jews form part of the Xueta community.</p><br>
<p>When Menorca became a British possession in 1713, they actively encouraged the immigration of foreign non-Catholics, which included Jews who were not accepted by the predominantly Christian inhabitants. When the Jewish community in Mahon requested the use of a room as a synagogue, their request was refused and they were denounced by the clergy. In 1781, when Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, duc de Mahon invaded Menorca, he ordered all Jews to leave in four days. At that time, the Jewish community consisted of about 500 people and they were transported from Menorca in four Spanish ships to the port of Marseille.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>The Vandals easily conquered the island in the 5th century. The Byzantine Empire recovered it in 534. Following the Moorish conquest of peninsular Spain, Menorca was annexed to the Caliphate of Córdoba in 903 and given the Arabicized name of Manûrqa, with many Moors emigrating to the island. In 1231, after Christian forces reconquered Majorca, Menorca chose to become an independent Islamic state, albeit one tributary to King James I of Aragon. The island was ruled first by Abû Uthmân Saîd Hakam al Qurashi (1234–1282), and following his death by his son, Abû Umar ibn Saîd (1282–1287). An Aragonese invasion, led by Alfonso III, came on 17 January 1287; its anniversary is now celebrated as Menorca&#39;s national day. Some of the Muslim inhabitants of the island were enslaved and sold in the slave markets of Ibiza, Valencia and Barcelona, while others became Christians.</p><br>
<p>Until 1344 the island was part of the Kingdom of Majorca, a vassal state of the Crown of Aragon. Aragon subsequently annexed the kingdom and was then absorbed itself into the unified Spanish crown. During the 16th century, Turkish naval attacks destroyed Mahon, and the then capital, Ciutadella, before Turkish settlement took place on some of the island. In Mahon, Barbary pirates from North Africa took considerable booty and as many as 6,000 slaves. Various Spanish kings, including Philip III and Philip IV, styled themselves "King of Minorca" as a subsidiary title.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>Invaded by Britains Royal Navy in 1708 during the War of the Spanish Succession, Minorca temporarily became a British possession. Great Britain took possession in 1713, under the terms of Article XI of the Treaty of Utrecht. Under the governorship of General Richard Kane, this period saw the islands capital moved to Port Mahon and a naval base established in that town&#39;s harbour.</p><br>
<p>In 1756, during the Seven Years War, France captured the island after the Siege of Fort St Philip and a failed British relief attempt. Thanks to the Treaty of Paris of 1763, the British returned to the island again following Britains victory in the Seven Years War. In 1781, during the American War of Independence, the British were defeated for a second time, in this instance by a combination of French and Spanish forces, and on 5 January 1782 the Spanish regained control of the island, after a long siege of St. Philips Castle in Port Mahon. On the feast of the Epiphany, as an expression of joy, King Charles III of Spain ordered the viceroys, captains general, governors, and military commanders to bring together the garrisons and to extend his greetings to army commanders on the so-called Pascua Militar. The British ceded the island back to Spain the next year in the Treaty of Versailles. Menorca was invaded by the British once again in 1798, during the French Revolutionary Wars, but it was finally and permanently repossessed by Spain by the terms of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. The British influence can still be seen in local architecture, with elements such as sash windows.</p><br>
<p>As with the rest of the Balearic Islands, Menorca was not occupied by the French during the Peninsular War, as it was successfully protected by the Royal Navy, this time allied to Spain.</p><br>
<h3>Post-1900</h3><br>
<p>During the Spanish Civil War, Menorca stayed loyal to the Republican Spanish Government, while the rest of the Balearic Islands supported the Nationalists. It did not see combat, except for aerial bombing by the Italians of Corpo Truppe Volontarie Air Force. Many Minorcans were also killed when taking part in a failed invasion of Majorca. Also some Majorcans and a priest were executed in Minorca during the Pedro Marqués Barber era (July–December 1936). After the Nationalist victory in the Battle of Minorca in February 1939, the British Navy assisted in a peaceful transfer of power in Minorca and the evacuation of some political refugees aboard.</p><br>
<p>In October 1993, Minorca was designated by UNESCO as a biosphere reserve. In July 2005, the island&#39;s application to become the 25th member of the International Island Games Association was approved.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>As the rest of the Balearics, Minorca has a mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), with mild winters and warm summers.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>The location of Minorca in the middle of the western Mediterranean was a staging point for the different cultures since prehistoric times. This Balearic Island has a mix of colonial and local architecture.</p><br>
<p>The festes take place throughout the summer in different towns around the island, and have their origins in the early 14th century. The international opera week and international organ festival in Mahon, and the summer music festival and Capella Davidica concerts in Ciutadella are the main events of the island.</p><br>
<p>Minorca&#39;s cuisine is dominated by the Mediterranean diet which is known to be very healthy. While many of the locals have adopted modern attitudes they still uphold certain old traditions.</p><br>
<h3>Traditional celebrations</h3><br>
<p>Minorca is especially well known for its traditional summer fiestas, which intrigue many visitors. The Festes de Sant Joan are held annually in Ciutadella, during 23–25 June. The festes last for three days. On the first day, a man bears a well-groomed sheep upon his shoulders and parades around the local streets. In the late evening, main streets are closed and bonfires held upon them.</p><br>
<p>On the second day, locally bred black horses are dressed with ribbons and rosettes. The riders, or "caixers", ride the horses through the streets and, along with a tumultuous crowd of people, encourage them to rear up on their hind legs. The brave can be found running underneath them in an attempt to touch the horses hearts for good luck.</p><br>
<p>The third day sees intense competition between the riders in a harmless form of jousting that involves spearing a suspended ring with a lance at considerable speed. The festes are brought to a close with a firework display.</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>As a small island, it is very seldom that there is a chance to see top level sport competitions in Menorca. In football, CF Sporting Mahonés managed to play in Segunda División B, the third level of the Spanish football league system, between 1987–1993 and between 2009–2012. In basketball, Menorca Bàsquet played in the Liga ACB, the first tier level men&#39;s professional basketball league in Spain, between 2005–2009 and in 2010–2011. Incidentally, both clubs dissolved in 2012 due to financial problems.</p><br>
<p>In the last years, some sport events that gather hundreds of participants are successfully held on a yearly basis, such as the triathlon race Extreme Man Menorca or the single-staged ultramarathon race Trail Menorca Camí de Cavalls. In 2014 it was announced that the island would host the 18th editions of the Island Games in 2019, however Menorca later pulled out of hosting the event, citing a change of government as the main reason.</p><br>
<h2>Language</h2><br>
<p>The two official languages are Catalan and Spanish. Natives to the island speak the variety of Catalan called Menorquí, and they typically speak Spanish fluently as a second language; many immigrants are monolingual in Spanish.</p><br>
<p>Between Menorquí and standard Catalan proper, as with most Balearic dialects, the most distinctive difference is the different word used for the article "the", where Menorquí uses "es" for masculine and "sa" for feminine. Menorquí thus shares the source of its article with many Sardinian varieties (masc. sing. su, fem sing. sa), rather than the standard Catalan "el" and "la", common to other Romance languages (e.g. Spanish el, la, Italian il, la), corresponding to a form which was historically used along the Costa Brava of Catalonia, from where it is supposed that the islands were repopulated after being conquered from the Moors. Menorquí also has a few English loan words dating back to the British occupation such as "grevi", "xumaquer", "boinder" and "xoc" taken from "gravy", "shoemaker", "bow window" and "chalk", respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Food and drink</h2><br>
<p>Wine production has been known on the island since ancient times, but it went into a heavy decline over the last century. Now, several new, small wineries have started up, producing wines locally.</p><br>
<p>Lingering British influence is seen in the Menorcans taste for gin, which during local festes honoring towns patron saints is mixed with lemonade (or bitter lemon) to make a golden liquid known as Pomada. Gin from Menorca is not derived from grain alcohol but from wine alcohol (eau de vie de vin), making it more akin to brandy. It has the distinction to have geographical identity protection. Probably the best known gin is Gin Xoriguer which is named after the typical Menorcan windmill which was used to make the first gin. One of the reasons it is also known as Gin de Minorca or Gin de Mahón.</p><br>
<p>Also famous is Mahón cheese, a cheese typical of the island.</p><br>
<p>One origin story of mayonnaise is that it was brought back to France from Mahon, Menorca, after Louis-François-Armand du Plessis de Richelieus victory over the British at the citys port in 1756.</p><br>
<p>Sweets known as flaons are one of the typical gastronomic products of Menorca.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<h3>Flowers</h3><br>
<p>Menorca is rich in wild flowers with over 900 species of flowering plants recorded. Many are those typical of the Mediterranean but some are endemic. There are 24 or 25 species of orchid found and of these most flower early in the year in late March, April and May.</p><br>
<h3>Insects</h3><br>
<p>30 species of butterflies have been recorded on Menorca and most are on the wing from March to late September. The species that occur include the Cleopatra, Lang&#39;s short tailed blue and the two-tailed pasha.</p><br>
<p>Despite not having many large wetlands dragonflies abound on Menorca. Seventeen species have been recorded including the emperor dragonfly.</p><br>
<p>List of butterflies of Menorca</p><br>
<p>List of dragonflies of Menorca</p><br>
<h3>Reptiles and amphibians</h3><br>
<p>There are three species of amphibia: green toad (Bufo viridis), marsh frog and stripeless tree frog (Hyla meridionalis).</p><br>
<p>The common lizard seen all over the island is the Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) although the Moroccan rock lizard (Scelaris perspicillata) also occurs. The Balearic endemic Lilford&#39;s wall lizard (Podarcis lilfordi) can be found on many of the offshore islands. Two species of gecko can be found on Menorca, the Moorish (Tarentola mauritanica) and the Turkish (Hemidactylus turcicus) also called the Mediterranean house gecko.</p><br>
<p>Four species of snake occur: the viperine snake (Natrix maura), grass snake, false smooth snake (Macroprotodon cucullatus) and the ladder snake (Rhinechis scalaris).</p><br>
<p>Hermann&#39;s tortoise (Testudo hermanni) is quite common and can be found all over the island. Two terrapin species are also found, the native European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis) and the introduced American red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta).</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>The birdlife of Menorca is very well known. Menorca is a well watched island which is on the migration route of many species and good number of passage migrants can be seen in spring. Residents include Audouins gull, blue rock thrush and Thekla lark. Booted eagle and red kite are easy to see as is Egyptian vulture in the right habitat. In summer there are bee-eaters and Menorca has major colonies of Corys shearwater and Balearic shearwater.</p><br>
<h3>Mammals</h3><br>
<p>Menorca has no large native mammals. There are some small mammals including rabbits, bats, rats, mice, pine martens and a subspecies of North African hedgehog.</p><br>
<h2>Municipalities</h2><br>
<p>The major towns are Port Mahon and Ciutadella de Menorca. The island is administratively divided into eight municipalities (from west to east):</p><br>
<p>Ciutadella de Menorca (or just Ciutadella locally) – the ancient capital of Menorca until 1722</p><br>
<p>Ferreries</p><br>
<p>Es Mercadal</p><br>
<p>Fornells, which belongs to the municipality of Es Mercadal. Famous for its lobster stew.</p><br>
<p>Es Migjorn Gran (or Es Mitjorn Gran) – hometown of Joan Riudavets.</p><br>
<p>Alaior</p><br>
<p>Cala En Porter – a tourist and residential area</p><br>
<p>Port Mahon (officially Maó in Catalan, Mahón in Spanish) – became the capital in 1722 during the British domination, thanks to its strategic natural harbour.</p><br>
<p>Llucmassanes – a small hamlet which belongs to the municipality of Maó.</p><br>
<p>Sant Climent, which belongs to the municipality of Maó.</p><br>
<p>Es Castell – Founded by the British and originally named as Georgetown.</p><br>
<p>Sant Lluís – Founded by the French and originally named Saint-Louis.</p><br>
<p>The areas and populations of the municipalities (according to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Spain) are:</p><br>
<p>Susa  was an ancient city of the Proto-Elamite, Elamite, First Persian Empire, Seleucid, and Parthian empires of Iran, and one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East. It is located in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km east of the Tigris River, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers.</p><br>
<p>The modern Iranian town of Shush is located at the site of ancient Susa. Shush is the administrative capital of the Shush County of Iran&#39;s Khuzestan province. It had a population of 64,960 in 2005.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>In Elamite, the name of the city was written variously Ŝuŝan, Ŝuŝun, etc. The origin of the word Susa is from the local city deity Inshushinak.</p><br>
<h2>Literary references</h2><br>
<p>Susa was one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East. In historic literature, Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient to Inanna, patron deity of Uruk, in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta.</p><br>
<h3>Biblical texts</h3><br>
<p>Susa is also mentioned in the Ketuvim of the Hebrew Bible by the name Shushan, mainly in Esther, but also once each in Nehemiah and Daniel. According to these texts, both Daniel and Nehemiah lived in Susa during the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century BCE, while Esther became queen there, married to King Ahasueurus, and saved the Jews from genocide. A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as Shush-Daniel. However, the current structure is actually a much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century, ca. 1871. Susa is further mentioned in the Book of Jubilees (8:21 & 9:2) as one of the places within the inheritance of Shem and his eldest son Elam; and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son (or daughter, in some translations) of Elam.</p><br>
<h3>Greek texts</h3><br>
<p>Greek mythology attributed the founding of Susa to king Memnon of Aethiopia, a character from Homer&#39;s Trojan War epic, the Iliad.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation history</h2><br>
<p>The site was examined in 1836 by Henry Rawlinson and then by A. H. Layard.</p><br>
<p>In 1851, some modest excavation was done by William Loftus, who identified it as Susa.</p><br>
<p>In 1885 and 1886 Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy began the first French excavations.</p><br>
<p>Jacques de Morgan conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911. These efforts continued under Roland De Mecquenem until 1914, at the beginning of World War I. French work at Susa resumed after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing until World War II in 1940. Archaeological results from the later period were very thinly published and attempts are underway to remedy this situation.</p><br>
<p>Roman Ghirshman took over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after the end of the war. Together with his wife Tania Ghirshman, he continued there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all the way down to bare earth. The pottery found at the various levels enabled a stratigraphy to be developed for Susa.</p><br>
<p>During the 1970s, excavations resumed under Jean Perrot.Jean Perrot, Les fouilles de Sus en 1975, Annual Symposium on</p><br>
<p>Archaeological Research in Iran 4, pp. 224-231, 1975</p><br>
<h2>Early settlement</h2><br>
<p>Archeologists have dated the first traces of an inhabited Neolithic village to c 7000 BCE. Evidence of a painted-pottery civilization has been dated to c 5000 BCE. Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian Ubaid ceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium B.C.</p><br>
<p>In urban history, Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of the region. Based on C14 dating, the foundation of a settlement there occurred as early as 4395 BCE (a calibrated radio-carbon date). At this stage it was already very large for the time, about 15 hectares.</p><br>
<p>The founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages. Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement at Chogha Mish. Previously, Chogha Mish was also a very large settlement, and it featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa.</p><br>
<p>Another important settlement in the area is Chogha Bonut, that was discovered in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Susa I period</h2><br>
<p>Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000 years ago, its inhabitants erected a temple on a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape. The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform.</p><br>
<p>Susa&#39;s earliest settlement is known as Susa I period (c. 4200-3900 BCE). Two settlements named by archeologists Acropolis (7 ha) and Apadana (6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha). The Apadana was enclosed by 6m thick walls of rammed earth (this particular place is named Apadana because it also contains a late Achaemenid structure of this type).</p><br>
<p>Nearly two thousand pots of Susa I style were recovered from the cemetery, most of them now in the Louvre. The vessels found are eloquent testimony to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned them.</p><br>
<p>Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children. The pottery is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand.</p><br>
<p>Copper metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such as Tepe Sialk.</p><br>
<h2>Susa II and Uruk influence</h2><br>
<p>Susa came within the Uruk cultural sphere during the Uruk period. An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk, proto-writing, cylinder seals with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture, is found at Susa. According to some scholars, Susa may have been a colony of Uruk.</p><br>
<p>There&#39;s some dispute about the comparative periodization of Susa and Uruk at this time, as well as about the extent of Uruk influence in Susa. Recent research indicates that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.</p><br>
<p>D. T. Potts, argue that the influence from the highland Iranian Khuzestan area in Susa was more significant at the early period, and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of two cultures, from the highland area and from the alluvial plains. Also, Potts stresses the fact that the writing and numerical systems of Uruk were not simply borrowed in Susa wholesale. Rather, only partial and selective borrowing took place, that was adapted to Susa&#39;s needs. Despite the fact that Uruk was far larger than Susa at the time, Susa was not its colony, but still maintained some independence for a long time, according to Potts.</p><br>
<p>Some scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture. Holly Pittman, an art historian at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia says, "they are participating entirely in an Uruk way of life. They are not culturally distinct; the material culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian plain". Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute, says that "An expansion once thought to have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years. It is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could be local choice".</p><br>
<h2>Susa III period</h2><br>
<p>Susa III (3100–2700 BCE) is also known as the Proto-Elamite period. At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record. Subsequently, Susa became the centre of Elam civilization.</p><br>
<p>Ambiguous reference to Elam (Cuneiform; NIM) appear also in this period in Sumerian records. Susa enters history during the Early Dynastic period of Sumer. A battle between Kish and Susa is recorded in 2700 BCE.</p><br>
<h2>Elamites</h2><br>
<p>In the Sumerian period, Susa was the capital of a state called Susiana (Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory of modern Khūzestān Province centered on the Karun River. Control of Susiana shifted between Elam, Sumer, and Akkad. Susiana is sometimes mistaken as synonymous with Elam but, according to F. Vallat, it was a distinct cultural and political entity.</p><br>
<p>Susiana was incorporated by Sargon the Great into his Akkadian Empire in approximately 2330 BCE.</p><br>
<h3>Kutik-Inshushinak</h3><br>
<p>Susa was the capital of an Akkadian province until ca. 2100 BCE, when its governor, Kutik-Inshushinak, rebelled and made it an independent state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from the Awan dynasty according to the Susa kinglist. He unified the neighbouring territories and became the king of Elam. He encouraged the use of the Linear Elamite script, that remains undeciphered.</p><br>
<p>The city was subsequently conquered by the neo-Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur and held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites under Kindattu in ca. 2004 BCE. At this time, Susa became an Elamite capital under the Epartid dynasty.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Elamite period</h3><br>
<p>Around 1500 BCE, the Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid dynasty of c. 1400 BCE, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana.</p><br>
<p>This was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction of the political and religious complex at Chogha Zanbil, 30 km south-east of Susa.</p><br>
<p>In ca. 1175 BCE, the Elamites under Shutruk-Nahhunte plundered the original stele bearing the Code of Hammurabi, the world&#39;s first known written laws, and took it to Susa. Archeologists found it in 1901. Nebuchadnezzar I of the Babylonian empire plundered Susa around fifty years later.</p><br>
<h2>Neo-Assyrians</h2><br>
<p>In 647 BCE, Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal leveled the city during a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side. A tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard in Nineveh reveals Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over the centuries:</p><br>
<p>"Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed....I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their lands, I sowed salt."</p><br>
<p>Assyrian rule of Susa began in 647 BCE and lasted till Median capture of Susa in 617 BCE.</p><br>
<h2>After Persian conquest</h2><br>
<h3>Achaemenid period</h3><br>
<p>Susa underwent a major political and ethnocultural transition when it became part of the Persian Achaemenid empire between 540 and 539 BCE when it was captured by Cyrus the Great during his conquest of Elam (Susiana), of which Susa was the capital. The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BCE.</p><br>
<p>It is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation. Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.</p><br>
<p>Cyrus&#39; conquest of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift, bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time.</p><br>
<p>Under Cyrus son Cambyses II, Susa became a center of political power as one of 4 capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing the significance of Pasargadae as the capital of Persis. Following Cambyses brief rule, Darius the Great began a major building program in Susa and Persepolis. During this time he describes his new capital in the DSf inscription:</p><br>
<p>"This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40 cubits in depth, another part 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed." Susa continued as a winter capital and residence for Achaemenid kings succeeding Darius the Great, Xerxes I, and their successors.</p><br>
<p>The city forms the setting of The Persians (472 BCE), an Athenian tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus that is the oldest surviving play in the history of theatre.</p><br>
<p>Events mentioned in the Old Testament book of Esther are said to have occurred in Susa during the Sassanid or Achaemenid period.</p><br>
<h3>Macedonian, Parthian and Sassanid periods</h3><br>
<p>Susa lost much of its importance when Alexander of Macedon (Alexander the Great) conquered it in 331 BCE and incorporated the first Persian Empire. The Susa weddings was arranged by Alexander in 324 BCE in Susa, where mass weddings took place between the Persians and the Macedonians.</p><br>
<p>Approximately one century after Alexander, Susa fell to the Seleucid Empire. After Seleucia, it was the biggest city under Seleucid control at the time. Susa used Charax Spasinou as its port. It retained a considerable amount of independence and retained its Greek city-state organization well into the ensuing Parthian period and seems to have gained independence under a dynasty whose kings bore the name of Kamnaskires in the 1st century CE.</p><br>
<p>When the Parthian Empire gained its independence from the Seleucid Empire, and took control of much of its eastern provinces, Susa was made one of the two capitals (along with Ctesiphon) of the new state.</p><br>
<p>Susa became a frequent place of refuge for Parthian and later, the Persian Sassanid kings, as the Romans sacked Ctesiphon five different times between 116 and 297 AD (Susa was briefly captured only by Roman emperor Trajan in 116 CE and never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east). Typically, the Parthian rulers wintered in Susa, and spent the summer in Ctesiphon.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Islamic period and degradation</h3><br>
<p>Susa was destroyed at least three times in its history. The first was in 647 BCE, by Ashurbanipal. The second destruction took place in 638 CE, when the Muslim armies first conquered Persia. In 1218, the city was razed by invading Mongols. The city further degraded in the 15th century when the majority of its population moved to Dezful and it remains as a small settlement today.</p><br>
<p>Susa had a significant Christian population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of the Church of the East between the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan province of Beth Huzaye (Elam).</p><br>
<p>Shikoku is the smallest  and least populous  of the four main islands of Japan, located south of Honshu and east of the island of Kyushu. Its ancient names include Iyo-no-futana-shima , Iyo-shima , and Futana-shima . The current name refers to the four former provinces that made up the island: Awa, Tosa, Sanuki, and Iyo.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Shikoku island, comprising Shikoku and its surrounding islets, covers about 18,800 km&sup2; and consists of four prefectures: Ehime, Kagawa, Kōchi, and Tokushima. Across the Inland Sea lie Wakayama, Osaka, Hyōgo, Okayama, Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi Prefectures on Honshu. To the west lie Ōita and Miyazaki Prefectures on Kyushu.</p><br>
<p>The 50th largest island by area in the world, Shikoku is smaller than Sardinia and Bananal, but larger than Halmahera and Seram. By population, it ranks 23rd, having fewer inhabitants than Sicily or Singapore, but more than Puerto Rico or Negros.</p><br>
<p>Mountains running east and west divide Shikoku into a narrow northern subregion, fronting on the Inland Sea, and a southern part facing the Pacific Ocean. Most of the 3.8 million inhabitants live in the north, and all but one of the island&#39;s few larger cities are located there. Mount Ishizuchi (石鎚山) in Ehime at 1,982 m is the highest mountain on the island. Industry is moderately well developed and includes the processing of ores from the important Besshi copper mine. Land is used intensively. Wide alluvial areas, especially in the eastern part of the zone, are planted with rice and subsequently are double cropped with winter wheat and barley. Fruit is grown throughout the northern area in great variety, including citrus fruits, persimmons, peaches, and grapes. Because of wheat production Sanuki udon (讃岐うどん) became an important part of the diet in Kagawa Prefecture (former Sanuki Province) in the Edo period.</p><br>
<p>The larger southern area of Shikoku is mountainous and sparsely populated. The only significant lowland is a small alluvial plain at Kōchi, the prefectural capital. The area&#39;s mild winters stimulated some truck farming, specializing in growing out-of-season vegetables under plastic covering. Two crops of rice can be cultivated annually in the southern area. The pulp and paper industry took advantage of the abundant forests and hydroelectric power.</p><br>
<p>The major river in Shikoku is the Yoshino River. It runs 196 km from its source close to Mount Ishizuchi, flowing basically west to east across the northern boundaries of Kōchi and Tokushima Prefectures, reaching the sea at the city of Tokushima. The Yoshino is famous for Japan&#39;s best white-water rafting, with trips going along the Oboke Koboke sections of the river.</p><br>
<p>Shikoku has four important capes. Gamōda in Anan, Tokushima is the easternmost point on the island, and Sada in Ikata, Ehime the westernmost. Muroto in Muroto, Kōchi and Ashizuri, the southern extreme of Shikoku, in Tosashimizu, Kōchi, jut into the Pacific Ocean. The island&#39;s northernmost point is in Takamatsu, Kagawa.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the other three major islands of Japan, Shikoku has no volcanoes.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Shikoku is connected to Honshu by three expressways, which together form the Honshū–Shikoku Bridge Project.</p><br>
<p>Kobe-Awaji-Naruto Expressway (Eastern Shikoku)</p><br>
<p>Seto-Chūō Expressway (Central Shikoku)</p><br>
<p>Nishiseto Expressway (Western Shikoku)</p><br>
<p>The eastern gateway to Shikoku, Naruto in Tokushima Prefecture has been linked to the Kobe-Awaji-Naruto Expressway since 1998. This line connects Shikoku to the Kansai area which has a large population, including the large conurbations of Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe. Therefore, the Kobe-Awaji-Naruto Expressway carries a large traffic volume. Many highway buses are operated between Kansai and Tokushima Prefecture.</p><br>
<p>The central part of Shikoku is connected to Honshu by ferry, air, and – since 1988 – by the Great Seto Bridge network. Until completion of the bridges, the region was isolated from the rest of Japan. The freer movement between Honshuū and Shikoku was expected to promote economic development on both sides of the bridges, which has not materialized yet.</p><br>
<p>Within the island, a web of national highways connects the major population centers. These include Routes 11, 32, 33, 55, and 56.</p><br>
<p>The Shikoku Railway Company (JR Shikoku) serves the island and connects to Honshu via the Great Seto Bridge. JR lines include:</p><br>
<p>Yosan Line</p><br>
<p>Dosan Line</p><br>
<p>Kōtoku Line</p><br>
<p>Tokushima Line</p><br>
<p>Mugi Line</p><br>
<p>Naruto Line</p><br>
<p>Uchiko Line</p><br>
<p>Yodo Line</p><br>
<p>Honshi Bisan Line</p><br>
<p>Seto Ōhashi Line</p><br>
<p>Private railway lines operate in each of the four prefectures on Shikoku.</p><br>
<h3>Air travel</h3><br>
<p>Shikoku lacks a full international airport but has four regional/domestic airports (Tokushima Airport, Takamatsu Airport, Kōchi Ryōma Airport and Matsuyama Airport). All of these airports have flights to Tokyo and other major Japanese cities such as Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, and Fukuoka. International flights to Seoul, South Korea are serviced by Asiana Airlines from Matsuyama and Takamatsu. There are periodic international charter flights as well.</p><br>
<p>Ferries link Shikoku to destinations including Honshu, Kyūshu, and islands around Shikoku.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Movements</h3><br>
<p>Pioneering natural farmer Masanobu Fukuoka, author of The One-Straw Revolution, developed his methods here on his family&#39;s farm.</p><br>
<h3>Traditions</h3><br>
<p>Shikoku is also famous for its 88-temple pilgrimage of temples associated with the priest Kūkai. Most modern-day pilgrims travel by bus, rarely choosing the old-fashioned method of going by foot. They are seen wearing white jackets emblazoned with the characters reading dōgyō ninin meaning "two traveling together".</p><br>
<p>Tokushima Prefecture also has its annual Awa Odori running in August at the time of the Obon festival, which attracts thousands of tourists each year from all over Japan and from abroad.</p><br>
<p>Kōchi Prefecture is home to the first annual Yosakoi festival. The largest festival in Kōchi, it takes place in August every year and attracts dancers and tourists from all over Japan.</p><br>
<h3>Food</h3><br>
<p>One of the major foods of Shikoku is udon.Udon is often served hot as a noodle soup in its simplest form, as kake udon, in a mildly flavoured broth called kakejiru,which is made of dashi, soy sauce (shōyu), and mirin. It is usually topped with thinly chopped scallions. Other common toppings include tempura, often prawn or kakiage (a type of mixed tempura fritter), or aburaage, a type of deep-fried tofu pockets seasoned with sugar, mirin, and soy sauce. A thin slice of kamaboko, a halfmoon-shaped fish cake, is often added. Shichimi can be added to taste. Another is Kōchi&#39;s signature dish, seared bonito.</p><br>
<p>The warm climate of Shikoku lends itself to the cultivation of citrus fruits. As a result, yuzu, mikan and other citrus fruits are plentiful on Shikoku and have become synonymous with the regions they are grown in.</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>Historically no Shikoku-based sports team has competed in the top Japanese division of baseball, football (soccer) or even rugby union. Currently the major teams competing in Shikoku&#39;s major cities include:</p><br>
<p>Naruto, Tokushima: Tokushima Vortis (football, J. League Division 2), Tokushima Indigo Socks (baseball, Shikoku-Kyūshū Island League)</p><br>
<p>Matsuyama, Ehime: Ehime F.C. (J2), Ehime Mandarin Pirates (SKIL)</p><br>
<p>Takamatsu, Kagawa: Kamatamare Sanuki (JFL), Kagawa Olive Guyners (SKIL)</p><br>
<p>Kōchi, Kōchi: Kōchi Fighting Dogs (SKIL)</p><br>
<p>Mount Sinai , also known as Mount Horeb or Gabal Musa, is a mountain in the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt that is a possible location of the biblical Mount Sinai, which is considered a holy site by the Abrahamic religions. Mount Sinai is mentioned many times in the Book of Exodus and other books of the Bible, and the Quran. According to Jewish, Christian, and Islamic tradition, the biblical Mount Sinai was the place where Moses received the Ten Commandments.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mount Sinai is a 2,285 m moderately high mountain near the city of Saint Catherine in the Sinai region. It is next to Mount Catherine (at 2,629 m, the highest peak in Egypt). It is surrounded on all sides by higher peaks of the mountain range.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Sinais rocks were formed in the late stage of the Arabian-Nubian Shields (ANS) evolution. Mount Sinai displays a ring complex that consists of alkaline granites intruded into diverse rock types, including volcanics. The granites range in composition from syenogranite to alkali feldspar granite. The volcanic rocks are alkaline to peralkaline and they are represented by subaerial flows and eruptions and subvolcanic porphyry. Generally, the nature of the exposed rocks in Mount Sinai indicates that they originated from differing depths.</p><br>
<h2>Religious significance</h2><br>
<p>The biblical Mount Sinai is one of the most important sacred places in the Jewish, Christian and Islamic religions.</p><br>
<p>According to Bedouin tradition, it was the mountain where God gave laws to the Israelites. However, the earliest Christian traditions place this event at the nearby Mount Serbal, at the foot of which a monastery was founded in the 4th century; it was only in the 6th century that the monastery moved to the foot of Mount Catherine, following the guidance of Josephus&#39;s earlier claim that Sinai was the highest mountain in the area.</p><br>
<p>Christians settled upon this mountain in the third century AD. Georgians from the Caucasus moved to the Sinai Peninsula in the Fifth Century, and a Georgian colony was formed there in the Ninth Century. Georgians erected their own churches in the area of the modern Mount Sinai. The construction of one such church was connected with the name of David The Builder, who contributed to the erecting of churches in Georgia and abroad as well. There were political, cultural and religious motives for locating the church on Mount Sinai. Georgian monks living there were deeply connected with their motherland. The church had its own plots in Kartli. Some of the Georgian manuscripts of Sinai remain there, but others are kept in Tbilisi, St. Petersburg, Prague, New York, Paris, or in private collections.</p><br>
<p>Some modern biblical scholars now believe that the Israelites would have crossed the Sinai peninsula in a direct route, rather than detouring to the southern tip (assuming that they did not cross the eastern branch of the Red Sea/Reed Sea), and therefore look for the biblical Mount Sinai elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>According to some scholars, the Song of Deborah suggests that God dwelt at Mount Seir, so many scholars favour a location in Nabatea (modern Arabia). Alternatively, the biblical descriptions of Sinai can be interpreted as describing a volcano, and so a small number of scholars have considered equating Sinai with locations in northwestern Saudi Arabia, such as Jabal al-Lawz; there are no volcanoes in the Sinai Peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Saint Catherine's Monastery</h2><br>
<p>Saint Catherine&#39;s Monastery (Greek: Μονὴ τῆς Ἁγίας Αἰκατερίνης) lies on the Sinai Peninsula, at the mouth of an inaccessible gorge at the foot of modern Mount Sinai in Saint Catherine at an elevation of 1550 meters. The monastery is Greek Orthodox and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. According to the UNESCO report (60100 ha / Ref: 954) and website hereunder, this monastery has been called the oldest working Christian monastery in the world – although the Monastery of Saint Anthony, situated across the Red Sea in the desert south of Cairo, also lays claim to that title.</p><br>
<h2>Ascent</h2><br>
<p>There are two principal routes to the summit. The longer and shallower route, Siket El Bashait, takes about 2.5 hours on foot, though camels can be used. The steeper, more direct route (Siket Sayidna Musa) is up the 3,750 "steps of penitence" in the ravine behind the monastery.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit of the mountain has a mosque that is still used by Muslims. It also has a Greek Orthodox chapel, constructed in 1934 on the ruins of a 16th-century church, that is not open to the public. The chapel encloses the rock which is considered to be the source for the biblical Tablets of Stone. At the summit also is "Moses&#39; cave", where Moses was said to have waited to receive the Ten Commandments.</p><br>
<p>Boys Town, formerly Girls and Boys Town and Father Flanagans Boys Home, is a non-profit organization dedicated to caring for its children and families, with national headquarters in the village of Boys Town, Nebraska. The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and was designated as a National Historic Landmark on February 4, 1985.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Boys Town was founded on December 12, 1917, as an orphanage for boys, then called the "City of Little Men". It was founded by Edward J. Flanagan, a Roman Catholic priest working in Omaha, Nebraska at that time. The City of Little Men pioneered and developed new juvenile care methods in twentieth-century America, emphasizing social preparation as a model for public boys&#39; homes worldwide."</p><br>
<p>In 1943, Boys Town adopted as its image and logo a picture of a boy carrying a younger boy on his back, captioned "He aint heavy, Father, hes my brother." They felt it epitomized the importance of their residents caring for each other and having someone care about them. The saying inspired a song and album by The Hollies.</p><br>
<h2>National locations</h2><br>
<p>Boys Town has grown over the years, providing care to children and families across the country. Boys Town&#39;s national headquarters is located at the "Village of Boys Town" in Nebraska. There are 12 regional headquarters across the United States, in California, Central Florida, North Florida, South Florida, Louisiana, Nebraska, Iowa, New England, New York, Nevada, Texas, and Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<p>Facilities include the Hall of History, dedicated to the history of Boys Town; the restored home of Father Flanagan; the Dowd Memorial Chapel and the Chambers Protestant Chapel; and the Leon Myers Stamp Center. The latter provides historical stamp-collecting exhibits and sells donated stamps to provide support for Boys Town programs. It has a summer camp on West Lake Okoboji, located near West Okoboji, Iowa.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The 1938 movie called Boys Town featured actor Spencer Tracy portraying Flanagan. It also starred Mickey Rooney, Henry Hull and Gene Reynolds, and its sequel, Men of Boys Town (1941) also featured Tracy and Rooney.</p><br>
<p>The Bab-el-Mandeb  or Mandeb Strait is a strait located between Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula, and Djibouti and Eritrea in the Horn of Africa. It connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The strait derives its name from the dangers attending its navigation, or, according to an Arab legend, from the numbers who were drowned by the earthquake which separated Eritrea and Djibouti from Yemen or Arabia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Bab-el-Mandeb acts as a strategic link between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea via the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. In 2006, an estimated 3.3 million barrels of oil passed through the strait per day, out of a world total of about 43 million barrels moved by tankers.</p><br>
<p>The distance across is about 20 miles (30 km) from Ras Menheli in Yemen to Ras Siyyan in Djibouti. The island of Perim divides the strait into two channels, of which the eastern, known as the Bab Iskender (Alexander&#39;s Strait), is 2 miles (3 km) wide and 16 fathoms (30 m) deep, while the western, or Dact-el-Mayun, has a width of about 16 miles (25 km) and a depth of 170 fathoms (310 m). Near the coast of Djibouti lies a group of smaller islands known as the "Seven Brothers". There is a surface current inwards in the eastern channel, but a strong undercurrent outwards in the western channel.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Paleo-environmental and tectonic events in the Miocene epoch created the Danakil Isthmus, a land bridge forming a broad connection between Yemen and Ethiopia. During the last 100,000 years eustatic sea level fluctuations have led to alternate opening and closing of the straits. According to the recent single origin hypothesis, the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb were probably witness to the earliest migrations of modern humans. It is presumed that at this time, the oceans were much lower and the straits were much shallower or dry, allowing a series of emigrations along the southern coast of Asia.</p><br>
<p>According to Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church tradition, the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb were witness to the earliest migrations of Semitic Ge&#39;ez speakers into Africa, occurring BC, roughly around the same time as the Hebrew patriarch Jacob. The Kingdom of Aksum was a major regional power in the Horn of Africa. It extended its rule across the strait with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom shortly before the rise of Islam.</p><br>
<p>The United Kingdom unilaterally seized the island of Perim in 1799 on behalf of its Indian empire. Britain reasserted its ownership in 1857 and erected a lighthouse there in 1861, using it to command the Red Sea and the trade routes through the Suez Canal.</p><br>
<p>On February 22, 2008, a company owned by Tarek bin Laden unveiled plans to build a bridge named Bridge of the Horns across the strait, linking Yemen with Djibouti. Middle East Development LLC has issued a notice to construct a bridge passing across the Red Sea that would be the longest suspended passing in the world. The project has been assigned to engineering company COWI in collaboration with architect studio Dissing+Weitling, both from Denmark. It was announced in 2010 that Phase 1 had been delayed and as of mid-2016 nothing more has been heard about the project.</p><br>
<h2>Sub-region</h2><br>
<p>The Bab-el-Mandeb is also a sub-region in the Arab League, which includes Djibouti, Yemen, and Eritrea.</p><br>
<h3>Demographics</h3><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The most significant towns and cities along both the Djiboutian and Yemeni sides of the Bab-el-Mandeb</p><br>
<h3></h3><br>
<p>Khôr ‘Angar</p><br>
<p>Moulhoule</p><br>
<p>Fagal</p><br>
<h3></h3><br>
<p>At Turbah</p><br>
<p>Shaykh Said</p><br>
<p>Naxos  is a Greek island—at 429 km&sup2; the largest of the Cyclades island group in the Aegean. It was the centre of archaic Cycladic culture. The island is famous as a source of emery, a rock rich in corundum, which until modern time was one of the best abrasives available.</p><br>
<p>The largest town and capital of the island is Chora or Naxos City, with 6,533 inhabitants (2001 census). The main villages are Filoti, Apiranthos, Vivlos, Agios Arsenios, Koronos and Glinado.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Climate is Mediterranean, with relatively mild winters and very warm summers. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Csa". (Mediterranean Climate).</p><br>
<h2>Mythic Naxos</h2><br>
<p>According to Greek mythology, the young Zeus was raised in a cave on Mt. Zas ("Zas" meaning "Zeus"). Homer mentions "Dia&quot literally the sacred island "of the Goddess". Karl Kerenyi explains (speaking as if he were an ancient Greek):</p><br>
<p>One legend has it that in the Heroic Age before the Trojan War, Theseus abandoned Ariadne on this island after she helped him kill the Minotaur and escape from the Labyrinth. Dionysus (god of wine, festivities, and the primal energy of life) who was the protector of the island, met Ariadne and fell in love with her. But eventually Ariadne, unable to bear her separation from Theseus, either killed herself (according to the Athenians), or ascended to heaven (as the older versions had it). The Naxos portion of the Ariadne myth is also told in the Richard Strauss opera Ariadne auf Naxos.</p><br>
<p>The giant brothers Otus and Ephialtes figure in at least two Naxos myths: in one, Artemis bought the abandonment of a siege they laid against the gods, by offering to live on Naxos as Otus&#39;s lover; in another, the brothers had actually settled Naxos.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Cycladic civilisation</h3><br>
<p>Zas Cave, inhabited during the Neolithic era, contained objects of stone from Melos and copper objects including a dagger and gold sheet. The presence of gold and other objects within the cave indicated to researchers the status of the inhabitant.</p><br>
<p>Emery was sourced during the time to other islands.</p><br>
<h3>Classical era and Greco-Persian Wars</h3><br>
<p>During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Naxos dominated commerce in the Cyclades. Naxos was the first Greek city-state to attempt to leave the Delian League circa 476 BC; Athens quickly squashed the notion and forcibly removed all military naval vessels from the island&#39;s control. Athens then demanded all future payments from Naxos in the form of gold rather than military aid.</p><br>
<p>Herodotus describes Naxos circa 500 BC as the most prosperous Greek island.</p><br>
<p>In 502 BC, an unsuccessful attack on Naxos by Persian forces led several prominent men in the Greek cities of Ionia to rebel against the Persian Empire in the Ionian Revolt, and then to the Persian War between Greece and Persia.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine era</h3><br>
<p>Under the Byzantine Empire, Naxos was part of the thema of the Aegean Sea, which was established in the mid-9th century.</p><br>
<h3>Duchy of Naxos</h3><br>
<p>In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, with a Latin Emperor under the influence of the Venetians established at Constantinople, the Venetian Marco Sanudo conquered the island and soon captured the rest of the islands of the Cyclades. Of all the islands, only on Naxos was there any opposition to Sanudo: a group of Genoese pirates had occupied the castle between the end of Byzantine rule and Sanudos arrival. To steel his bands resolve, Sanudo burnt his galleys "and bade his companions to conquer or die." The pirates surrendered the castle after a five weeks&#39; siege.</p><br>
<p>Naxos became the seat of Sanudo&#39;s realm, which he ruled with the title of Duke of Naxia, or Duke of the Archipelago. Twenty-one dukes in two dynasties ruled the Archipelago, until 1566; Venetian rule continued in scattered islands of the Aegean until 1714. Under Venetian rule, the island was called by its Italian name, Nasso.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman control (1566–1821)</h3><br>
<p>The Ottoman administration remained essentially in the hands of the Venetians; the Porte&#39;s concern was satisfied by the returns of taxes. Very few Turks ever settled on Naxos, and Turkish influence on the island is slight. Under Ottoman rule the island was known as Turkish: Nakşa. Ottoman sovereignty lasted until 1821, when the islands revolted; Naxos finally became a member of the Greek state in 1832.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>Naxos is a popular tourist destination, with several ruins. It has a number of beaches, such as those at Agia Anna, Agios Prokopios, Alikos, Kastraki, Mikri Vigla, Plaka, and Agios Georgios, most of them near Chora.</p><br>
<p>As other cycladic islands, Naxos is considered a windy place perfect for windsurfing, as well as kitesurfing. There are seven sports clubs in the island that offer both of these sports and other water activities.</p><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>Naxos is the most fertile island of the Cyclades. It has a good supply of water in a region where water is usually inadequate. Mount Zeus (1,004 m) is the highest peak in the Cyclades, and tends to trap the clouds, permitting greater rainfall. This has made agriculture an important economic sector with various vegetable and fruit crops as well as cattle breeding, making Naxos the most self-sufficient island in the Cyclades. Naxos is well known within Greece for its cheese, potatoes and Kitron, a local lemon-citrus spirit.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Pannaxiakos A.O. (sports club)</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Ecumenical Patriarch Callinicus III of Constantinople (died 1726)</p><br>
<p>Nicodemus the Hagiorite (1749–1809), saint</p><br>
<p>Petros Protopapadakis (1854–1922), Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Manolis Glezos (born 1922), politician, writer</p><br>
<p>Iakovos Kambanelis (1922–2011), poet, playwright, lyricist and novelist</p><br>
<p>Iakovos Nafpliotis (1864–1942), cantor</p><br>
<p>Keti Chomata (1946–2010), singer</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Ninios (born 1959), actor</p><br>
<p>Stelios Manolas (born 1961), soccer player</p><br>
<p>Giannoulis Fakinos (born 1989), soccer player</p><br>
<p>Kostas Manolas (born 1991), soccer player</p><br>
<p>Georgios Korres, founder of Korres company</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Mykonios, fighter of the Greek War of Independence and officer of the Greek Army.</p><br>
<p>Michalis Polytarchou, basketball player, Former Captain of AEK Athens BC.</p><br>
<p>Fountains Abbey is one of the largest and best preserved ruined Cistercian monasteries in England. It is located approximately 3 mi south-west of Ripon in North Yorkshire, near to the village of Aldfield. Founded in 1132, the abbey operated for 407 years becoming one of the wealthiest monasteries in England until its dissolution in 1539 under the order of Henry VIII.</p><br>
<p>The abbey is a Grade I listed building owned by the National Trust and part of the designated Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of Fountains Abbey UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<h2>Foundation</h2><br>
<p>After a dispute and riot in 1132 at the Benedictine house of St Mary&#39;s Abbey, in York, 13 monks were expelled (among them Saint Robert of Newminster) and, after unsuccessful attempts to form a new monastery were taken under the protection of Thurstan, Archbishop of York. He provided them with land in the valley of the River Skell, a tributary of the Ure. The enclosed valley had all the natural features needed for the creation of a monastery, providing shelter from the weather, stone and timber for building, and a supply of running water. After enduring a harsh winter in 1133, the monks applied to join the Cistercian order which since the end of the previous century was a fast-growing reform movement that by the beginning of the 13th century was to have over 500 houses. So it was that in 1135, Fountains became the second Cistercian house in northern England, after Rievaulx. The Fountains monks became subject to Clairvaux Abbey, in Burgundy which was under the rule of St Bernard. Under the guidance of Geoffrey of Ainai, a monk sent from Clairvaux, the group learned how to celebrate the seven Canonical Hours according to Cistercian usage and were shown how to construct wooden buildings in accordance with Cistercian practice.</p><br>
<h2>Consolidation</h2><br>
<p>After Henry Murdac was elected abbot in 1143, the small stone church and timber claustral buildings were replaced. Within three years, an aisled nave had been added to the stone church, and the first permanent claustral buildings built in stone and roofed in tile had been completed.</p><br>
<p>In 1146 an angry mob, annoyed at Murdac for his role in opposing the election of William FitzHerbert as archbishop of York, attacked the abbey and burnt down all but the church and some surrounding buildings. The community recovered swiftly from the attack and founded four daughter houses. Henry Murdac resigned as abbot in 1147 upon becoming the Archbishop of York and was replaced first by Maurice, Abbot of Rievaulx then, on the resignation of Maurice, by Thorald. Thorald was forced by Henry Murdac to resign after two years in office. The next abbot, Richard, held the post until his death in 1170 and restored the abbey&#39;s stability and prosperity. In 20 years as abbot, he supervised a huge building programme which involved completing repairs to the damaged church and building more accommodation for the increasing number of recruits. Only the chapter house was completed before he died and the work was ably continued by his successor, Robert of Pipewell, under whose rule the abbey gained a reputation for caring for the needy.</p><br>
<p>The next abbot was William, who presided over the abbey from 1180 to 1190 and he was succeeded by Ralph Haget, who had entered Fountains at the age of 30 as a novice, after pursuing a military career. During the European famine of 1194 Haget ordered the construction of shelters in the vicinity of the abbey and provided daily food rations to the poor enhancing the abbey&#39;s reputation for caring for the poor and attracting more grants from wealthy benefactors.</p><br>
<p>In the first half of the 13th century Fountains increased in reputation and prosperity under the next three abbots, John of York (1203–1211), John of Hessle (1211–1220) and John of Kent (1220–1247). They were burdened with an inordinate amount of administrative duties and increasing demands for money in taxation and levies but managed to complete another massive expansion of the abbey&#39;s buildings. This included enlarging the church and building an infirmary.</p><br>
<h2>Difficulties</h2><br>
<p>In the second half of the 13th century the abbey was in more straitened circumstances. It was presided over by eleven abbots, and became financially unstable largely due to forward selling its wool crop, and the abbey was criticised for its dire material and physical state when it was visited by Archbishop John le Romeyn in 1294. The run of disasters that befell the community continued into the early 14th century when northern England was invaded by the Scots and there were further demands for taxes. The culmination of these misfortunes was the Black Death of 1348–1349. The loss of manpower and income due to the ravages of the plague was almost ruinous.</p><br>
<p>A further complication arose as a result of the Papal Schism of 1378–1409. Fountains Abbey along with other English Cistercian houses was told to break off any contact with the mother house of Citeaux, which supported a rival pope. This resulted in the abbots forming their own chapter to rule the order in England and consequently they became increasingly involved in internecine politics. In 1410, following the death of Abbot Burley of Fountains, the community was riven by several years of turmoil over the election of his successor. Contending candidates John Ripon, Abbot of Meaux, and Roger Frank, a monk of Fountains were locked in conflict until 1415 when Ripon was finally appointed, ruling until his death in 1434. Under abbots John Greenwell (1442–1471), Thomas Swinton (1471–8), John Darnton (1478–95), who undertook some much needed restoration of the fabric of the abbey, including notable work on the church, and Marmaduke Huby (1495–1526) Fountains regained stability and prosperity.</p><br>
<p>At Abbot Hubys death he was succeeded by William Thirsk who was accused by the royal commissioners of immorality and inadequacy and was dismissed as abbot. He was replaced by Marmaduke Bradley, a monk of the abbey who had reported Thirsks supposed offences, testified against him and offered the authorities six hundred marks for the post of abbot. In 1539 it was Bradley who surrendered the abbey when its seizure was ordered under Henry VIII at the Dissolution of the Monasteries.</p><br>
<h2>Abbots of Fountains</h2><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The abbey precinct covered 70 acre surrounded by an 11 ft wall built in the 13th century, some parts of which are visible to the south and west of the abbey. The area consists of three concentric zones cut by the River Skell flowing from west to east across the site. The church and claustral buildings stand at the centre of the precinct north of the Skell, the inner court containing the domestic buildings stretches down to the river and the outer court housing the industrial and agricultural buildings lies on the rivers south bank. The early abbey buildings were added to and altered over time, causing deviations from the strict Cistercian type. Outside the walls were the abbeys granges.</p><br>
<p>The original abbey church was built of wood and "was probably" two-stories high; it was, however, quickly replaced in stone. The church was damaged in the attack on the abbey in 1146 and was rebuilt, in a larger scale, on the same site. Building work was completed c.1170. This structure, completed around 1170, was 300 ft long and had 11 bays in the side aisles. A lantern tower was added at the crossing of the church in the late 12th century. The presbytery at the eastern end of the church was much altered in the 13th century. The churchs greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York, 1203–11, and carried on by his successor terminates, like that of Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220–47. The 160 ft tower, which was added not long before the dissolution, by Abbot Huby, 1494–1526, is in an unusual position at the northern end of the north transept and bears Hubys motto Soli Deo Honor et Gloria. The sacristry adjoined the south transept.</p><br>
<p>The cloister, which had arcading of black marble from Nidderdale and white sandstone, is in the centre of the precinct and to the south of the church. The three-aisled chapter-house and parlour open from the eastern walk of the cloister and the refectory, with the kitchen and buttery attached, are at right angles to its southern walk. Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure serving as cellars and store-rooms, which supported the dormitory of the conversi (lay brothers) above. This building extended across the river and at its south-west corner were the latrines, built above the swiftly flowing stream. The monks&#39; dormitory was in its usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the transept. Peculiarities of this arrangement include the position of the kitchen, between the refectory and calefactory, and of the infirmary above the river to the west, adjoining the guest-houses.</p><br>
<p>The abbot&#39;s house, one of the largest in all of England, is located to the east of the latrine block, where portions of it are suspended on arches over the River Skell. It was built in the mid-twelfth century as a modest single-storey structure, then, from the fourteenth century, underwent extensive expansion and remodelling to end up in the 16th century as a grand dwelling with fine bay windows and grand fireplaces. The great hall was an expansive room 52 by.</p><br>
<p>Among other apartments, for the designation of which see the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or chapel, 46+1/2 by, and a kitchen, 50 by.</p><br>
<h2>Endowments and economy</h2><br>
<p>Medieval monasteries were sustained by landed estates that were given to them as endowments and from which they derived an income from rents. They were the gifts of the founder and subsequent patrons, but some were purchased from cash revenues. At the outset, the Cistercian order rejected gifts of mills and rents, churches with tithes and feudal manors as they did not accord with their belief in monastic purity, because they involved contact with laymen. When Archbishop Thurstan founded the abbey he gave the community 260 acre of land at Sutton north of the abbey and 200 acre at Herleshowe to provide support while the abbey became established. In the early years the abbey struggled to maintain itself because further gifts were not forthcoming and Thurstan could not help further because the lands he administered were not his own, but part of the diocesan estate.</p><br>
<p>After a few years of impoverished struggle to establish the abbey, the monks were joined by Hugh, a former dean of York Minster, a rich man who brought a considerable fortune as well as furniture and books to start the library.</p><br>
<p>By 1135 the monks had acquired only another 260 acre at Cayton, given by Eustace fitzJohn of Knaresborough "for the building of the abbey". Shortly after the fire of 1146, the monks had established granges at Sutton, Cayton, Cowton Moor, Warsill, Dacre and Aldburgh all within 6 mi of Fountains. In the 1140s the water mill was built on the abbey site making it possible for the grain from the granges to be brought to the abbey for milling. Tannery waste from this time has been excavated on the site.</p><br>
<p>Further estates were assembled in two phases, between 1140 and 1160 then 1174 and 1175, from piecemeal acquisitions of land. Some of the lands were grants from benefactors but others were purchased from gifts of money to the abbey. Roger de Mowbray granted vast areas of Nidderdale and William de Percy and his tenants granted substantial estates in Craven which included Malham Moor and the fishery in Malham Tarn. After 1203 the abbots consolidated the abbeys lands by renting out more distant areas that the monks could not easily farm themselves, and exchanging and purchasing lands that complemented their existing estates. Fountains holdings both in Yorkshire and beyond had reached their maximum extent by 1265, when they were an efficient and very profitable estate. Their estates were linked in a network of individual granges which provided staging posts to the most distant ones. They had urban properties in York, Yarm, Grimsby, Scarborough and Boston from which to conduct export and market trading and their other commercial interests included mining, quarrying, iron-smelting, fishing and milling.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 was a factor that led to a downturn in the prosperity of the abbey in the early fourteenth century. Areas of the north of England as far south as York were looted by the Scots. Then the number of lay-brothers being recruited to the order reduced considerably. The abbey chose to take advantage of the relaxation of the edict on leasing property that had been enacted by the General Chapter of the order in 1208 and leased some of their properties. Others were staffed by hired labour and remained in hand under the supervision of bailiffs. In 1535 Fountains had an interest in 138 vills and the total taxable income of the Fountains estate was £1,115, making it the richest Cistercian monastery in England.</p><br>
<h2>After the Dissolution</h2><br>
<p>The Abbey buildings and over 500 acre of land were sold by the Crown, on 1 October 1540, to Sir Richard Gresham, at the time a Member of Parliament and former Lord Mayor of London, the father of Sir Thomas Gresham. It was Richard Gresham who had supplied Cardinal Wolsey with the tapestries for his new house of Hampton Court and who paid for the Cardinal&#39;s funeral.</p><br>
<p>Gresham sold some of the fabric of the site, stone, timber, lead, as building materials to help to defray the cost of purchase. The site was acquired in 1597 by Sir Stephen Proctor, who used stone from the monastic complex to build Fountains Hall. Between 1627 and 1767 the estate was owned by the Messenger family who sold it to William Aislaby who was responsible for combining it with the Studley Royal Estate.</p><br>
<h2>Becoming a World Heritage Site</h2><br>
<p>The archaeological excavation of the site was begun under the supervision of John Richard Walbran, a Ripon antiquary who, in 1846, had published a paper On the Necessity of clearing out the Conventual Church of Fountains. In 1966 the Abbey was placed in the guardianship of the Department of the Environment and the estate was purchased by the West Riding County Council who transferred ownership to the North Yorkshire County Council in 1974. The National Trust bought the 674 acre Fountains Abbey and Studley Royal estate from North Yorkshire County Council in 1983.</p><br>
<p>In 1986 the parkland in which the abbey is situated and the abbey was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It was recognised for fulfilling the criteria of being a masterpiece of human creative genius, and an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates significant stages in human history.</p><br>
<p>Fountains Abbey is owned by the National Trust and maintained by English Heritage. The trust owns Studley Royal Park, Fountains Hall, to which there is partial public access, and St Mary&#39;s Church, designed by William Burges and built around 1873, all of which are significant features of the World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>The Porter&#39;s Lodge, which was once the gatehouse to the abbey, houses a modern exhibition area with displays about the history of Fountains Abbey and how the monks lived.</p><br>
<p>In January 2010, Fountains Abbey and Studley Royal became two of the first National Trust properties to be included in Google Street View, using the Google Trike.</p><br>
<h2>Film location</h2><br>
<p>Fountains Abbey was used as a film location by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark for their single "Maid of Orleans (The Waltz Joan of Arc)" during the cold winter of December 1981. In 1980, Hollywood also came to the site to film the final scenes to the film Omen III: The Final Conflict. Other productions filmed on location at the abbey are the films The Secret Garden, The History Boys, TV series Flambards, A History of Britain, Terry Jones&#39; Medieval Lives, Cathedral, Antiques Roadshow and the game show Treasure Hunt.</p><br>
<p>Mount Ruapehu, or just Ruapehu, is an active stratovolcano at the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand. It is 23 km northeast of Ohakune and 23 km southwest of the southern shore of Lake Taupo, within Tongariro National Park. The North Island&#39;s major ski resorts and only glaciers are on its slopes.</p><br>
<p>Ruapehu, the largest active volcano in New Zealand, is the highest point on the North Island and has three major peaks: Tahurangi (2,797 m), Te Heuheu (2,755 m) and Paretetaitonga (2,751 m). The deep, active crater is between the peaks and fills with Crater Lake between major eruptions.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic activity</h2><br>
<p>Ruapehu is largely composed of andesite and began erupting at least 250,000 years ago. In recorded history, major eruptions have been about 50 years apart, in 1895, 1945 and 1995–1996. Minor eruptions are frequent, with at least 60 since 1945. Some of the minor eruptions in the 1970s generated small ash falls and lahars (mudflows) that damaged skifields.</p><br>
<p>Between major eruptions, warm acidic Crater Lake forms, fed by melting snow. Major eruptions may completely expel the lake water. Where a major eruption has deposited a tephra dam across the lake&#39;s outlet, the dam may collapse after the lake has refilled and risen above the level of its normal outlet, the outrush of water causing a large lahar. In 2000, the ERLAWS system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities.</p><br>
<p>The 1945 eruption emptied Crater Lake and dammed the outlet with tephra. The crater slowly refilled with water, until on 24 December 1953 the tephra dam collapsed causing a lahar in the Whangaehu River. The lahar caused the Tangiwai disaster, with the loss of 151 lives, when the Tangiwai railway bridge across the Whangaehu River collapsed while the lahar was in full flood, just before an express train crossed it.</p><br>
<p>It was already known that the river had partially undermined one of the bridge piers and the lahar finished the job, causing the bridge to collapse. Although warned of the collapsed bridge, the train driver was unable to stop the train in time and six of the carriages fell into the river.</p><br>
<p>Spectacular eruptions occurred during 1995 and 1996. Ruapehu had been showing signs of increased activity since late November 1994, with elevated Crater Lake temperatures and a series of eruptions that increased in intensity over about nine months. Several lahars were observed, both in the Whangaehu River and other areas of the mountain, between 18 September and 25 September 1995, indicating Crater Lake was being emptied by the eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The Department of Conservation immediately issued hazard warnings and advised people to keep off the mountain, thus ending the ski season. The eruption cloud disrupted air travel, occasionally closing airports and the central North Island airspace. Black sand-like ash fell on surrounding farmland and stock had to be moved. The ash also entered streams and was washed into the pen stocks and turbines of the Rangipo power station causing rapid corrosion on the turbine blades which had to be rebuilt. Episodic eruptions continued until the end of November 1995.</p><br>
<p>Within hours of a major eruption during the night being reported on 25 September 1995, news media were trying to get live video of the eruption and amateur photographers had published eruption images on the World Wide Web. A web camera, dubbed the world&#39;s first "Volcano Cam", was set up. Since then Ruapehu has been monitored by at least one and sometimes several volcano cams.</p><br>
<p>Another, smaller, eruption phase began on the morning of 17 June 1996. Despite a series of small eruptions that spread thin layers of ash across both Whakapapa and Turoa ski areas, the ski fields opened for the 1996 season. Turoa closed on 29 September – earlier than usual, while Whakapapa stayed open until Labour Weekend.</p><br>
<p>After the 1996 eruption it was recognised that a catastrophic lahar could again occur when Crater Lake bursts the volcanic ash dam blocking the lake outlet. This is the same mechanism that caused the 1953 lahar. The lake gradually filled with snowmelt and had reached the level of the hard rock rim by January 2005. The lahar finally occurred on 18 March 2007 (see below).</p><br>
<p>Ruapehu erupted at 10.30pm on 4 October 2006. The small eruption created a volcanic earthquake at a magnitude of 2.8, sending a water plume 200 m into the air and 6-m waves crashing into the wall of the crater.</p><br>
<p>On 18 March 2007, the tephra dam which had been holding back Crater Lake burst, sending a lahar down the mountain. An estimated 1.4 million cubic metres of mud, rock, and water travelled down the Whangaehu river. The Department of Conservation had received warning signals from the lahar warning system (ERLAWS) at around 10:30 that morning and closed all major roads in the area, preventing thousands of motorists from travelling, and shut down the main rail system for the North Island. The river banks held and no spill overs occurred. No serious damage was done and no one was injured. One family was trapped for around 24 hours after the lahar swept away the access route to their home.</p><br>
<p>At about 8:20 p.m. on 25 September 2007, a hydrothermal eruption occurred without warning. William Pike, a 22-year-old primary school teacher, had a leg crushed by a rock during the eruption and a rescue operation was mounted to rescue him from the Dome Shelter near the crater. The rock crashed into the Dome Shelter, landed on the man and was too heavy for his companion to lift off.</p><br>
<p>Two lahars that travelled down the mountain activated warning signals from the lahar warning system and prompted the evacuation of some ski lodges on the mountain and the closure of roads in the area. The eruption was accompanied by a 7-minute-long earthquake, measuring 2.9 on the Richter Scale.</p><br>
<p>On 2 May 2008, a level-1 warning was issued after GNS scientists who were monitoring the lake found irregular signs of volcanic activity. This included increased chemical changes, gases and temperature. The warning was used to let visitors know the potential of an explosion was higher than usual and could happen at any time. This could also be a follow-up to the previous year&#39;s 2007 eruption.</p><br>
<p>A GeoNet New Zealand Bulletin was released on 21 July 2008 stating that "the current phase of volcano unrest appears to be over, however Ruapehu remains an active volcano. Future eruptions may occur without warning." However the level has remained at 1, where it has been since 1997.</p><br>
<p>On 5 April 2011 Geonet changed Mount Ruapehus Volcanic Aviation Colour Code from Green to Yellow (elevated unrest above the known background). Ruapehus Volcanic Alert Level remained at level 1 (signs of volcanic unrest).</p><br>
<p>The Volcanic Aviation Colour Code was changed because a sustained period of high water temperatures in the Crater Lake (approximately 38 - 39 °C) was observed and because changes were observed in volcanic gas output, seismic activity and Crater Lake water chemistry.</p><br>
<p>On 16 November, GNS Science volcanologists warned that pressure was likely building up beneath Crater Lake, and that an eruption in the coming weeks or months is more likely than normal. The aviation colour code was raised from green to yellow.</p><br>
<p>On 29 April, Geonet issued a volcanic alert reporting that Crater Lake&#39;s temperature has risen to 40 °C, up from 25 °C in mid-April. An earthquake swarm has also been recorded under Crater Lake. On 11 May the volcanic alert level was raised to level 2 and the aviation colour code was changed from green to yellow.</p><br>
<h2>Ski fields</h2><br>
<p>Ruapehu has two commercial ski fields, Whakapapa on the northern side and Turoa on the southern slope. They are the two largest ski fields in New Zealand, with Whakapapa the larger. The club Tukino field is on the east of the mountain and is open to the public. The season is generally from June to October but depends on snow and weather conditions.</p><br>
<p>Both ski fields are accessible by car and chairlifts, with beginners to advanced skiing slopes. Whakapapa has five chair lifts with limited accommodation and refreshments available at Top o the Bruce (the car park at the top of Bruce Road) and at the entry to Whakapapa, and elsewhere on the mountain. Alpine huts are provided for trampers and climbers. These are mainly owned by private clubs.</p><br>
<h2>Weather</h2><br>
<p>Weather conditions can be changeable over the day, and mountain visitors are advised to be prepared and carry basic survival equipment. Although severe weather is unusual and generally forecast, it has claimed several lives over the years, including a party of five NZ Army soldiers and one RNZN naval rating, caught in a week-long storm while undergoing winter survival training in 1990. The same storm also trapped an experienced Japanese mountaineer when the weather unexpectedly closed in on him, but he built a snow cave and sheltered in it until he was rescued days later.</p><br>
<p>On 5 July 2003, about 350 skiers and 70 skifield staff were trapped on the mountain overnight at Top o&#39; the Bruce when a sudden snow storm blew up and within a few minutes made the access road too dangerous to descend. They spent the night in relative comfort and all descended safely the next morning. Such rapidly changing conditions are typical of the weather on New Zealand mountains.</p><br>
<p>Again on Saturday 26 July 2008, skiers and staff were trapped on the mountain overnight when a fast approaching storm caused the skifield to be closed at 10:30 a.m. and made the road too dangerous for cars without chains or 4WD to leave the area. By 3 p.m. there were still over 100 cars in the Whakapapa car park and those who had not been able to leave by that point were told to settle in for the night. All cars were able to leave safely the next morning.</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>The glaciers on Mount Ruapehu are the only glaciers in the North Island. They are all small, less than 1.6 km in length. There are eighteen glaciers including one within the crater; the largest are the Mangatoetoenui, Summit Plateau and Whangaehu Glaciers.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Some scenes of the fictional Mordor and Mount Doom in Peter Jackson&#39;s The Lord of the Rings film trilogy were filmed on the slopes of Mount Ruapehu.</p><br>
<p>Ibiza  is an island in the Mediterranean Sea off the east coast of Spain. It is 150 km from the city of Valencia. It is the third largest of the Balearic Islands, an autonomous community of Spain. Its largest settlements are Ibiza Town , Santa Eulària des Riu, and Sant Antoni de Portmany. Its highest point, called Sa Talaiassa , is 475 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Ibiza has become well known for its association with nightlife, electronic music that originated on the island, and for the summer club scene, all of which attract large numbers of tourists drawn to that type of holiday. Several years before 2010, the island&#39;s government and the Spanish Tourist Office had been working to promote more family-oriented tourism, with the police closing down clubs that played music at late night hours, but by 2010 this policy was reversed. Around 2015 it was resumed.</p><br>
<p>The port in Ibiza Town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>Ibiza and the nearby island of Formentera to its south are called the Pine Islands, or "Pityuses".</p><br>
<h2>Toponymy</h2><br>
<p>The official name of the island is in Catalan Eivissa. Its name in Spanish is Ibiza. In British English, the name is usually pronounced in an approximation of the Spanish, whereas in American English the pronunciation is closer to Latin American Spanish.</p><br>
<p>Phoenician colonists called the island Ibossim (from the Phoenician iboshim, meaning dedicated to the Egyptian god Bes). It was later known to Romans as Ebusus. The Greeks called the two islands of Ibiza and Formentera the Pityûssai (Greek: Πιτυοῦσσαι, "pine-covered islands").</p><br>
<p>In the 18th and 19th centuries the island was known to the British, and especially to the Royal Navy, as Ivica.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ancient names ybshm, yboshim, &#39;Iboshim, Aiboshim during phoenician rule.</p><br>
<p>In 654 BC, Phoenician settlers founded a port on Ibiza. With the decline of Phoenicia after the Assyrian invasions, Ibiza came under the control of Carthage, also a former Phoenician colony. The island produced dye, salt, fish sauce (garum), and wool.</p><br>
<p>A shrine with offerings to the goddess Tanit was established in the cave at Es Cuieram, and the rest of the Balearic Islands entered Eivissa&#39;s commercial orbit after 400 BC. Ibiza was a major trading post along the Mediterranean routes. Ibiza began establishing its own trading stations along the nearby Balearic island of Majorca, such as Na Guardis, and "Na Galera" where numerous Balearic mercenaries hired on, no doubt as slingers,Sil. Ital. iii. 364, 365: "Iam cui Tlepolemus sator, et cui Lindus origo, Funda bella ferens Balearis et alite plumbo."</p><br>
<p>(Latin). to fight for Carthage.</p><br>
<p>During the Second Punic War, the island was assaulted by the two Scipio brothers in 217 BC but remained loyal to Carthage. With the Carthaginian military failing on the Iberian mainland, Ibiza was last used, 205 B.C, by the fleeing Carthaginian General Mago to gather supplies and men before sailing to Menorca and then to Liguria. Ibiza negotiated a favorable treaty (Foedus) with the Romans, which spared Ibiza from further destruction and allowed it to continue its Carthaginian-Punic institutions, traditions and even coinage well into the Empire days, when it became an official Roman municipality. For this reason, Ibiza today contains excellent examples of late Carthaginian-Punic civilization. During the Roman Empire, the island became a quiet imperial outpost, removed from the important trading routes of the time.</p><br>
<p>Roman name. Ebussus, Ebusus.</p><br>
<p>After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and a brief period of first Vandal and then Byzantine rule, the island was conquered by the Moors in 902, the few remaining locals converted to Islam and Berber settlers came in. Under Islamic rule, Ibiza (Yabisah) came in close contact with the city of Dénia—the closest port in the nearby Iberian peninsula, located in the Valencian Community—and the two areas were administered jointly by the Taifa of Dénia during some time ( 11th century).</p><br>
<p>Ibiza together with the islands of Formentera and Menorca were invaded by the Norwegian King Sigurd I of Norway in the spring of 1110 on his crusade to Jerusalem. The king had previously conquered the cities of Sintra, Lisbon, and Alcácer do Sal and given them over to Christian rulers, in an effort to weaken the Muslim grip on the Iberian peninsula. King Sigurd continued to Sicily where he visited King Roger II of Sicily.</p><br>
<p>The island was conquered by Aragonese King James I in 1235. The local Muslim population got deported as was the case with neighboring Majorca and elsewhere, and Christians arrived from Girona. The island maintained its own self-government in several forms until 1715, when King Philip V of Spain abolished the local government&#39;s autonomy. The arrival of democracy in the late 1970s led to the Statute of Autonomy of the Balearic Islands. Today, the island is part of the Balearic Autonomous Community, along with Majorca, Menorca, and Formentera.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ibiza is a rock island covering an area of 572.56 km&sup2, almost six times smaller than Majorca, but over five times larger than Mykonos (in the Greek Isles) or 10 times larger than Manhattan in New York City.</p><br>
<p>Ibiza is the larger of a group of the western Balearic archipelago called the "Pityuses" or "Pine Islands" composed of itself and Formentera. The Balearic island chain includes over 50 islands, many of which are uninhabited. The highest point of the island is Sa Talaiassa, at 475 m.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Ibiza is administratively part of the autonomous community of the Balearic Islands, whose capital is Palma, on the island of Majorca. Ibiza comprises 5 of the community&#39;s 67 municipalities. Clockwise from the south coast, these are:</p><br>
<p>Sant Josep de sa Talaia (Spanish: San José)</p><br>
<p>Sant Antoni de Portmany (San Antonio Abad)</p><br>
<p>Sant Joan de Labritja (San Juan Bautista)</p><br>
<p>Santa Eulària des Riu (Santa Eulalia del Río)</p><br>
<p>Vila d&#39;Eivissa ("Ibiza Town&quot known simply as Vila, "Town")</p><br>
<p>At the 2001 census these municipalities had a total population of 88,076 inhabitants, which had risen to an estimated 132,637 by the start of 2010, and have a land area of 572.56 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Ibiza has a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) bordering on a Hot semi-arid climate (BSh). The average annual temperature of Ibiza is 18.3 &deg;C, being warm and mild throughout the whole year. Ibiza lies at the same latitude as Atlantic City, yet it is much warmer for it&#39;s location in the Mediterranean Basin. The climate of Ibiza is typically warm, sunny and dry, with low variation between highs and lows. The sunshine hours of Ibiza are 2700-2800 per year, while the yearly rain amount goes from 400 to 450 mm. The average high temperature is 22.2 &deg;C, while the average low is 14.3 &deg;C. Winters are slightly rainy and mild, from November to April normally the whole island turns green for the seasonal rains. Summers are hot and very dry, with few rainy days, often accompanied by thunderstorms. During the coldest month, January, the average high temperature is 15.7 &deg;C, while the average low is 8.1 &deg;C. In the warmest month, August, the average high temperature is 30.3 &deg;C, while the low is 22.2 &deg;C. Extreme temperatures are rare for the influence of the sea. The average temperature of the sea in Ibiza is 19.7 &deg;C and beach weather usually lasts 7 months, from May to November.</p><br>
<h2>People</h2><br>
<p>Demographically, Ibiza displays a very peculiar configuration, as census agencies diverge on exact figures. According to the 2001 national census, Ibiza had 88,076 inhabitants (against 76,000 in 1991, 64,000 in 1981, 45,000 in 1971, and 38,000 in 1961). However, two years later, this figure jumped to 108,000 (Govern de les Illes Balears – IBAE 2004), and by the start of 2010 had reached 132,637. This rapid growth stems from the amnesty which incorporated a number of unregistered foreign migrants. In terms of origin, about 55 percent of island residents were born in Ibiza, 35 percent are domestic migrants from mainland Spain (mostly working-class families from Andalusia, and the remainder from Catalonia, Valencia and Castile), and the remaining 10 to 15 percent are foreign, dual and multi-national citizens of the EU and abroad (Govern de les Illes Balears – IBAE 1996). In decreasing order, the most commonly visiting foreigners are German, British, Latin American, French, Italian and Dutch, in addition to a myriad of other nationalities. This mosaic reflects the fluidity of foreigners living and moving across the island, in ways that render impossible to exactly quantify the expatriate population (Rozenberg 1990).</p><br>
<p>The Spanish composer and music theorist Miguel Roig-Francolí was born in Ibiza, as was the politician and Spain&#39;s former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Abel Matutes. Notable former residents of Ibiza include: English punk musician John Simon Ritchie (Sid Vicious), the psychedelic rock band Philiac, comic actor Terry-Thomas, Hungarian master forger Elmyr de Hory, American fraudster Clifford Irving, and film director/actor Orson Welles.</p><br>
<h2>Language</h2><br>
<p>Eivissenc is the native dialect of Catalan that is spoken on Ibiza and nearby Formentera. Catalan shares co-official status with Spanish. Additionally, because of the influence of tourism and expatriates living in or maintaining residences on the island, other languages like English, French German, and Italian, are widely spoken.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<h3>Nightlife</h3><br>
<p>Ibiza is considered to be a popular tourist destination, especially due to its legendary and at times riotous nightclub based nightlife centred on two areas: Ibiza Town, the island&#39;s capital on the southern shore and Sant Antoni to the West.</p><br>
<p>Night life in Ibiza has undergone several changes since the islands opening to international tourism in the late 1950s. Origins of todays club culture may be traced back to the hippie gatherings held during the 1960s and 1970s. During these, people of various nationalities sharing the hippie ethos would regroup, talk, play music and occasionally take drugs. These would most often happen on beaches during the day, with nude bathing a common sight, and in rented fincas in the evenings or at nights. Apart from this confidential scene, which nevertheless attracted many foreigners to the island, local venues during the 1960s consisted mostly of bars, which would be the meeting points for Ibicencos, ex-pats, seafarers and tourists alike. The Estrella bar on the port and La Tierra in the old city of Eivissa were favourites.</p><br>
<p>During the 1970s, a decade that saw the emergence of the contemporary nightclub, several places opened and made a lasting impact on Ibiza&#39;s nightlife. Four of these original clubs are still in operation today: Pacha, Privilege (formerly Ku), Amnesia and Es Paradís. These four clubs mainly defined nightlife on the White Island, which has evolved and developed from several distinctive elements: open-air parties (Es Paradis, Privilege, Amnesia), held in isolated places, eventually old fincas (Pacha, Amnesia), that mixed in nudity and costume party (Es Paradis, Privilege, Pacha) and enabled people from various backgrounds to blend (all). The hippie ethos served as a common factor that infused all these venues and catalyzed the experience of a certain kind of freedom, accentuated by the holiday nature of most of the stays on the White Island.</p><br>
<p>During the 1980s, the music played in these clubs gained in reputation and became known as Balearic beat, a precursor of the British acid house scene. As rave parties blossomed all over Europe, a DJ-driven club culture took hold of Ibizenca nightlife. It was the time when Space opened, thanks to Pepe Rosello, which found a niche in the after-hour parties: basically, the club would close at 6 AM and open again at 7 AM, when all the other clubs were still closed, enabling party-goers to flock from the other clubs to Space and continue dancing in broad daylight.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the 1990s, the after-hour parties held firm root on the island. In 1999, the Circoloco parties made their debut at DC10, with some of the original elements of Ibiza nightlife at the forefront.</p><br>
<p>Nowadays, during the summer, top producers and DJs in dance music come to the island and play at the various clubs, in between touring to other international destinations. Some of the most famous DJs run their own weekly nights around the island. Many of these DJs use Ibiza as an outlet for presenting new songs within the house, trance and techno genres of electronic dance music. The city has achieved renowned worldwide fame as a cultural centre for house and trance in particular, with its name often being used as a partial metonym for the particular flavour of electronic music originating there, much like Goa in India.</p><br>
<p>Since 2005, the live music event Ibiza Rocks has helped to redefine the Ibiza party landscape. Bands such as Arctic Monkeys, Kasabian, The Prodigy, and the Kaiser Chiefs have played in the courtyard of the Ibiza Rocks Hotel.</p><br>
<p>The season traditionally begins at the start of June with Space and DC10s opening parties and finishes on the first weekend of October with the Closing Parties. A typical schedule for clubbers going to Ibiza includes waking at noon, early evening naps, late night clubbing, and "disco sunrises." Due to Ibizas notable tolerance toward misbehaviour from young adult tourists, it has acquired the sobriquet "Gomorrah of the Med." Also well-known is Café del Mar, a long-standing bar where many tourists traditionally view the sunset made famous by José Padilla, who has released more than a dozen eponymous album compilations of ambient music played at the location. That and other bars nearby have become an increasingly popular venue for club pre-parties after sunset, hosting popular DJ performers.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s government is trying to encourage a more cultured and quieter tourism scene, passing rules including the closing of all nightclubs by 6 a.m. at the latest, and requiring all new hotels to be 5-star. The administration wants to attract a more international mixture of tourists.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>A number of novels and other books have been written using Ibiza as the setting, including "The White Island" by Stephen Armstrong, Joshua Then and Now by Mordecai Richler, Soma Blues by Robert Sheckley, Vacation in Ibiza by Lawrence Schimel, A Short Life on a Sunny Isle: An Alphonse Dantan Mystery by Hannah Blank, They Are Ruining Ibiza by A. C. Greene, and The Python Project by Victor Canning.</p><br>
<h3>World Heritage Site</h3><br>
<p>Though primarily known for its party scene, large portions of the island are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and thus protected from the development and commercialization of the main cities. A notable example includes "God&#39;s Finger" in the Benirràs Bay as well as some of the more traditional Ibizan cultural sites such as the remains of the first Phoenician settlement at Sa Caleta. Other sites are still under threat from the developers, such as Ses Feixes Wetlands, but this site has now been recognised as a threatened environment, and it is expected that steps will be taken to preserve this wetland.</p><br>
<p>Because of its rustic beauty, companies and artists alike frequently use the island for photographic and film shoots. A monument ("The Egg") erected in honour of Christopher Columbus can be found in Sant Antoni; Ibiza is one of several places purporting to be his birthplace.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Since the early days of mass tourism on the island, there have been a large number of development projects ranging from successful ventures, such as the super clubs at Space and Privilege, to failed development projects, such as Josep Lluís Serts abandoned hotel complex at Cala Den Serra, the half-completed and now demolished "Idea" nightclub in Sant Antoni, and the ruins of a huge restaurant/nightclub in the hills near Sant Josep called "Festival Club" that only operated for three summer seasons in the early 1970s. The transient nature of club-oriented tourism is most obvious in these ruins scattered all over the island. Local artist Irene de Andrès has tackled the difficult issue of the impact of mass tourism on the island local landscapes, both natural and cultural, in an ongoing project called "Donde nada ocurre" (Where nothing happens). In 2013, Ibiza property prices generally remained above market value, and many of the development projects on the island have now been completed or continue, as well as some new projects announced at the end of 2012. Since 2009, Ibiza has seen an increase in tourist numbers every year, with nearly 6 million people traveling through Ibiza Airport in 2012. The summer season has become concentrated between June and September, focusing on the "clubbing calendar" which is currently booming. In recent years, the luxury market has dramatically improved, with new restaurants, clubs, and improvements to the marina in Ibiza Town.</p><br>
<p>Ibizas increased popularity has led to problems with potable water shortages and overrun infrastructure. This has led to imposition of a "Sustainable Tourism Tax" which went into effect in July 1, 2016. Minister of Tourism Vincente Torres stated in an interview in 2016 that the government has instituted a moratorium and building in certain areas. He said that with almost 100,000 legal touristic beds and about 132,000 inhabitants on the islands 572 km&sup2; not much more tourism can be supported.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Ibiza is served by Ibiza Airport, which has many international flights during the summer tourist season, especially from the European Union.</p><br>
<p>There are also ferries from the harbour of Sant Antoni and Ibiza Town to Barcelona, Majorca, Dénia, and Valencia. There are also ferries to Formentera leaving Sant Antoni Harbour (normally every Wednesday), and daily from Ibiza Town, Santa Eulària, and Figueretes–Platja d&#39;en Bossa.</p><br>
<p>Several public busses also travel between Sant Antoni and Ibiza Town—every 15 minutes in summer and every half-hour in winter. In addition, there are buses from Sant Antoni to Cala Bassa, Cala Conta and Cala Tarida, and to the Airport. From Ibiza there are buses to the Platja d&#39;en Bossa, Ses Salines, the Airport, and Santa Eulària.</p><br>
<h2>Cuisine</h2><br>
<p>Ibiza&#39;s local cuisine is typically Mediterranean. Of the most common culinary products of the island are sweets known as flaons. Other savory dishes include sofrit pagès, bullit de peix (fish stew), arròs de matança (rice with pork) and arròs a la marinera.</p><br>
<p>The Soča  or Isonzo   is a 138 km long river that flows through western Slovenia  and northeastern Italy .</p><br>
<p>An Alpine river in character, its source lies in the Trenta Valley in the Julian Alps in northwestern Slovenia, at an elevation of 876 m. The river runs past the towns of Bovec, Kobarid, Tolmin, Kanal ob Soči, Nova Gorica (where it is crossed by the Solkan Bridge), and Gorizia, entering the Adriatic Sea close to the town of Monfalcone. It has a nival-pluvial regime in its upper course and pluvial-nival in its lower course.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the First World War, the river formed part of the border between Kingdom of Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During World War I, it was the scene of bitter fighting between the two countries, culminating in the Battle of Caporetto in 1917.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The river was recorded in antiquity as Aesontius, Sontius, and Isontius. Later attestations include super Sontium (in 507–11), a flumine Isontio (1028), in Lisonçum (1261), an die Ysnicz (1401), and an der Snicz (ca. 1440). The Slovene name Soča is derived from the form *Sǫťa, which was borrowed from Latin (and Romance) Sontius. In turn, this is probably based on the substrate name *Aisontia, presumably derived from the PIE root * swift, rushing, referring to a quickly moving river. Another possible origin is the pre-Romance root * water, river.</p><br>
<h2>Major changes in the watershed</h2><br>
<p>The present course of the river is the result of several dramatic changes that occurred during the past 2,000 years. According to the Roman historian Strabo, the river named Aesontius, which in Roman times flowed past Aquileia to the Adriatic Sea, was essentially the Natisone and Torre river system.</p><br>
<p>In 585, a landslide cut off the upper part of the Natisone riverbed, causing its avulsion and subsequent stream capture by the Bontius River. The original subterranean discharge of the Bontius into the Timavo became obstructed, and another avulsion returned the new watercourse into the bed of the lower Natisone.</p><br>
<p>During the next centuries the estuary of this new river&mdash;the Soča&mdash;moved eastward until it captured the short coastal river Sdobba, through which the Soča now discharges into the Adriatic Sea. The former estuary (of the Aesontius, and the early Soča/Isonzo) in the newly formed lagoon of Grado became an independent coastal rivulet.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>Due to its emerald-green water, the river is marketed as "The Emerald Beauty." It is said to be one of the rare rivers in the world that retain such a colour throughout their length. Giuseppe Ungaretti, one of the greatest Italian poets, describes the Isonzo in the poem "The Rivers."</p><br>
<p>The Soča inspired the poet Simon Gregorčič to write his best-known poem Soči (To the Soča), one of the masterpieces of Slovene poetry. This region served as a location for the 2008 Disney film Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian.</p><br>
<p>The Soča is also well known for its unique trout species Salmo marmoratus (known as the marble trout), which lives in the upper course of the crystal-clear river. This species is endangered due to the introduction of other non-indigenous trout species sometime between World War I and World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Significance in World War I</h2><br>
<p>The valley was the stage of major military operations including the twelve battles of the Isonzo on the Italian front in World War I between May 1915 and November 1917, in which over 300,000 Austro-Hungarian and Italian soldiers lost their lives.</p><br>
<p>The Isonzo campaign comprised the following battles:</p><br>
<p>First Battle of the Isonzo: 23 June &ndash; 7 July 1915</p><br>
<p>Second Battle of the Isonzo: 18 July &ndash; 3 August 1915</p><br>
<p>Third Battle of the Isonzo: 18 October &ndash; 3 November 1915</p><br>
<p>Fourth Battle of the Isonzo: 10 November &ndash; 2 December 1915</p><br>
<p>Fifth Battle of the Isonzo: 9&ndash;17 March 1916</p><br>
<p>Sixth Battle of the Isonzo: 6&ndash;17 August 1916</p><br>
<p>Seventh Battle of the Isonzo: 14&ndash;17 September 1916</p><br>
<p>Eighth Battle of the Isonzo: 10&ndash;12 October 1916</p><br>
<p>Ninth Battle of the Isonzo: 1&ndash;4 November 1916</p><br>
<p>Tenth Battle of the Isonzo: 12 May &ndash; 8 June 1917</p><br>
<p>Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo: 19 August &ndash; 12 September 1917</p><br>
<p>Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo: 24 October &ndash; 7 November 1917, also known as the Battle of Caporetto</p><br>
<p>Falkner Island  is a 2.87 acre crescent-shaped island located in Long Island Sound 3 miles  off the coast of Guilford, Connecticut, United States. The island has been visited by the Native Americans for thousands of years. Its Quinnipiac name is "Massancummock", meaning "the place of the great fish hawks". In 1641, Henry Whitfield and the founders of Guilford purchased the island from the Mohegan tribes sachem, Uncas, as part of a transaction for the land east of East River. Purchased by the Stone family in 1715, it remained in the family until it was sold to the government in 1801.</p><br>
<p>The Falkner Island Light was constructed in 1802 and commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson. The light is the second oldest in Connecticut and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The lighthouse was automated in 1978, and continues to operate as a navigational aid to the nearby Intracoastal Waterway. The island is part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge and has the fifth-largest colony of nesting roseate terns in the northeastern United States. Much of the island&#39;s land mass has been lost to erosion, down to about 2.87 acre from its original 4.5 acre. The United States Army Corps of Engineers reinforced the eastern boundary to slow the advancing deterioration.</p><br>
<h2>Name origins</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded name of the Falkner Island was coined by the Native Americans. The island name in Quinnipiac was "Massancummock" meaning "the place of the great fish hawks". The Quinnipiac name did not refer to possession, but instead the usage or resources of the island.</p><br>
<p>The identity of the first European explorer is unknown, but it was likely the Dutch explorer Adrian Block who sailed through Long Island Sound around 1614. The United States government credits Block as the discoverer. Early English settlers called it "Falcon Island", likely stemming from the Native American name. Helander writes that the island was probably named for the osprey, but the English translation to "Falcon" suggesting the presence of the peregrine falcon was one of "simple ignorance". The islands name on Dutch maps was "Valcken Eylandt". The name later evolved to Faulkner Island, perhaps as a result of the Faulkner family who lived on the island in the 1700s. When the island was transferred to the USA government in 1801, the deed states the name as "Faulkners". The USA Board on Geographic Names changed and established "Falkner Island" as its name in 1891. However, the name change is not universally recognized and "popular usage" and the Faulkners Light Brigade that conserves the island&#39;s lighthouse use "Faulkner&quot including publications.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Falkner Island has been the site of human activity for thousands of years. An archaeological survey performed on the island from 1997-1998 found a quartz projectile point of the Squibnocket triangle variety which dates to 1000-3000 B.C. The study was conducted by the USA Army Corps of Engineers and the USA Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the erosion control project; it was required by law under the National Historic Preservation Act because the island is on the National Register of Historic Places. The findings were published in the Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut in 2001. In 1994, John P. Mentas The History of the Quinnipiac Indians identifies Falker Island as the site of ceremonial and religious practices, but that these practices are still unknown. According to Bruchacs Thirteen Moons on Turtle&#39;s Back the island was not a permanent settlement, but was likely used for fishing and hunting trips in the summer.</p><br>
<p>European contact occurred in the first half of the 1600s. In 1715, Caleb and Ebenezer Stone purchased the island and it remained in the Stone family until 1801. In 1800, Noah Stone sold it to a distant relative named Medad Stone for $158.34. On May 12, 1801, Medad Stone sold the island to the government for $325. Joel Henderson, a historian, notes that Medad Stone and the government were likely openly communicating about the island. The United States Congress appropriated $6000 in March 1801 for the lighthouse, prior to the government&#39;s acquisition of the property.</p><br>
<p>It was inhabited throughout the 1700s through 1976, with the Faulkner family and various lightkeepers of the Falkner Island Light. The erosion control project was completed, but Hurricane Irene and Hurricane Sandy greatly reduced the breeding habitat of the terns to just 50 sqm.</p><br>
<p>Erosion threatens the island&#39;s very existence, it is believed that it was around eight acres in 1639 before being reduced to 5.70 acres by 1818. By 1987, the total area has fallen to 2.87 acres and it was projected that it could lose another 12 inches each year until it disappears into the sea around 2026.</p><br>
<h2>Falkner Island Light</h2><br>
<p>The Falkner Island Lighthouse was constructed in 1802 and commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson. Access to Falkner Island and the light is restricted during the nesting season of the roseate terns, from May to August. The Falkner Island Lighthouse is the second oldest extant lighthouse in Connecticut and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>In 1985, the island became part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge after it was acquired from the USA Coast Guard. According to the Connecticut Audubon Society, "it currently supports over 95% of the nesting Common Terns in Connecticut. It is the site of one of the ten largest Roseate Tern (~45 pairs) colonies in Northeastern North America, and is the only regular nesting location for this federally endangered species in the state." Also living on the island is the American oystercatcher, with one to two breeding pairs noted each year. Although the erosion control project was completed, Hurricane Irene and Hurricane Sandy greatly reduced the breeding habitat of the terns to just 50 sqm. In spring 2014, the dock damaged by Hurricane Sandy was scheduled to be rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>Iceland is an island country at the confluence of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, east of Greenland and immediately south of the Arctic Circle, atop the constructive boundary of the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge about 860 km from Scotland and 4,200 km from New York City. One of the worlds most sparsely populated countries, Icelands boundaries are almost the same as the main island – the worlds 18th largest in area and possessing almost all of the countrys area and population.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Iceland has extensive volcanic and geothermal activity. The rift associated with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which marks the division between the Eurasian Plate and North American tectonic plates, runs across Iceland from the southwest to the northeast. This geographic feature is prominent at the Þingvellir National Park, where the promontory creates an extraordinary natural amphitheatre. The site was the home of Iceland&#39;s parliament, the Alþing, which was first convened in 930. It is a common misconception that Þingvellir are at the juncture between the North American and Eurasian continental plates. However, they are in fact at the juncture of the North American continental plate and a smaller plate (approx. 10,000 square kilometers) called the Hreppar Microplate (Hreppaflekinn).</p><br>
<p>About half of Iceland&#39;s land area, which is of recent volcanic origin, consists of a mountainous lava desert (highest elevation 2,110 m above sea level) and other wasteland. Around 10.2 per cent of the total land area is covered by glaciers, although these are now retreating at an accelerating rate. The four largest Icelandic glaciers are:</p><br>
<p>Vatnajökull (7764 km²)</p><br>
<p>Langjökull (868 km²)</p><br>
<p>Hofsjökull (827 km²)</p><br>
<p>Mýrdalsjökull (542 km²)</p><br>
<p>Other notable glaciers include:</p><br>
<p>Drangajökull (145 km²)</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull (70 km²)</p><br>
<p>Tungnafellsjökull (33 km²)</p><br>
<p>Þórisjökull (25 km²)</p><br>
<p>Eiríksjökull (21 km²)</p><br>
<p>Þrándarjökull (16 km²)</p><br>
<p>Tindfjallajökull (11 km²)</p><br>
<p>Torfajökull (10 km²)</p><br>
<p>Snæfellsjökull (10 km²).</p><br>
<p>Twenty per cent of the land is used for grazing, while only 1 per cent is cultivated. Iceland has lost most of the woodland that previously covered large areas of the country, but an ambitious reforestation programme is currently underway. Fossilized tree pollen and descriptions by the early settlers indicate that prior to human settlement, now thought to have occurred from around the year 800 onwards, trees covered between 30 and 40 per cent of the island. Today, however, there are only small patches of the original birch forests left, the most prominent being Hallormsstaðaskógur and Vaglaskógur.</p><br>
<p>The inhabited areas are on the coast, particularly in the southwest, while the central highlands are all but uninhabited.</p><br>
<p>Because of the Gulf Stream&#39;s moderating influence, the climate is characterized by damp, cool summers and relatively mild but windy winters. Reykjavík has an average temperature of 12 &deg;C in July and 1 &deg;C in January (Köppen: Cfc).</p><br>
<h2>Statistics</h2><br>
<h2>Antipodes</h2><br>
<p>Iceland is not antipodal to any land mass. The closest are the Balleny Islands off Antarctica, claimed by New Zealand. The antipodes of the northernmost of these, Young Island, lie between Flatey and Grímsey Islands off the north central Icelandic coast, about 10 km from either.</p><br>
<h2>Geological activity</h2><br>
<p>A geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the Iceland hotspot and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This location means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes, notably Hekla, Eldgjá, Herðubreið and Eldfell</p><br>
<p>Iceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word geyser is derived.</p><br>
<p>With the widespread availability of geothermal power, and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating and electricity.</p><br>
<p>See geothermal power in Iceland.</p><br>
<p>The island is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii. Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with approx. 30 volcanic systems active.</p><br>
<h2>Maps and images</h2><br>
<p>The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum is composed of a brick tomb  and an exhibition hall adjacent to it. It is located at 41 Tonkin Street, in Cheung Sha Wan, Sham Shui Po District, in the northwestern part of the Kowloon Peninsula of Hong Kong.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to the structure, calligraphy and content of the inscriptions on tomb bricks and to the tomb finds, the tomb is commonly believed to have been built during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25 – 220) although the Southern Dynasties period was also suggested. It was probably built for a Chinese officer attached to the local garrison.</p><br>
<p>The tomb is constructed of bricks (average size 40x20x5cm) and consists of four chambers set in the form of a cross. The dome vault at the center was constructed by laying bricks in a spiral, while the other chambers are barrel vaulted. Some bricks are stamped or carved with inscriptions or patterns on the exposed sides. It is believed that the rear chamber is the coffin chamber, that side chambers were used for storage, while ritual ceremonies were performed in the front chamber under the domed roof.</p><br>
<p>The tomb&#39;s cross-shaped structure and the burial objects found inside show great similarities as compared to other Han tombs found in South China, which prove that early Chinese civilisation had spread to Hong Kong 2,000 years ago. The inscription Panyu on tomb bricks further confirms the dating, since, according to historical records, Panyu was the name of the county to which the present territory of Hong Kong belonged during the Han dynasty. Also, the style of the calligraphy used in the inscriptions was an angular version of lishu (clerical script) which was generally used in inscriptions on bronze wares and stones during the Han dynasty. There were no bodies found in the tomb.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery and preservation</h2><br>
<p>The tomb was accidentally discovered in August 1955, when the Hong Kong Government was levelling a hill slope for the construction of resettlement buildings at Lei Cheng Uk Village (present-day Lei Cheng Uk Estate). The tomb was then excavated by members of Hong Kong University and workers of the Public Works Department, Hong Kong under the supervision of Professor F.S. Drake, former head of the Chinese Department at the University of Hong Kong. After excavation, the tomb and an exhibition hall were formally opened to the public in 1957. In November 1988, the Han Tomb was declared as a gazetted monument by the Hong Kong Government, and it is now protected and preserved permanently under the Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance.</p><br>
<p>Due to conservation reasons, visitors have not been able to enter the tomb itself since the mid-1980s. They now have to view it through a glass panel at the entrance passage, and the tomb is sealed in a temperature and humidity controlled environment.</p><br>
<p>The tomb, which had been protected by concrete, waterproofing layers, topsoil and turf, suffered from rainwater leakage problems and its protection underwent a renovation project completed in 2005. The renovation works included the building of a canopy to cover the tomb.</p><br>
<p>3D Laser Scanning Technology in digital recording of structures was applied to capture 3D images of the structure.</p><br>
<h2>The museum</h2><br>
<p>The tomb and gallery came under the management of the former Urban Council in 1969. The museum later became a branch of the Hong Kong Museum of History in 1975. As such, it is managed by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department of the Hong Kong Government. A newly built exhibition hall opened in 1988, when the tomb was declared a gazetted monument. The hall was refurbished in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Details on the discovery and characteristics of the tomb, as well as bronze and pottery artefacts found in the tomb are on permanent display in the exhibition hall.</p><br>
<p>A 3D digital animation in the exhibition hall provides a detailed view of the interior of the tomb. Moreover, a 1:1 replica of the inside of the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb is displayed at the Hong Kong Museum of History.</p><br>
<h3>Exhibition Hall</h3><br>
<p>The Exhibition Hall is located next to the tomb.</p><br>
<p>The first section is about food and drink in Han as it seems because most of what was found in the Han tomb is related to food. The display of this section begins with the old Chinese adage, food is the first necessity of the people. There is a map depicting food distribution, a pictogram of rice distribution and a table of the major food groups. There are also three replicas of figurines. Two of the figurines are cooks, and another one is a farmer.</p><br>
<p>The second section is about the excavation of the Han tomb. The excavation process, the inside of the tomb and the archaeologists at work are shown with several photographs.The tomb&#39;s structure and layout are shown with the models and plans. This displays also how the professionals dated the tomb by using the inscriptions on the bricks.</p><br>
<p>The third part of the gallery shows the artefacts found in the tomb. As the only Eastern Han dynasty brick tomb ever found in Hong Kong, the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb has invaluable historic value containing 58 items found on site. Objects include cooking utensils, food containers, storage jars and models (a house, a granary, a well and a stove) made of pottery (50), as well as bowls, basins, mirrors, and bells made of bronze (8). No human skeletal remains were found.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum is served by the Cheung Sha Wan MTR station (exit A3).</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding</h2><br>
<p>The Han Garden, located next to the museum, was completed in December 1993. The features in this Chinese garden were built following the style of the Han dynasty and include pavilions, terraces, towers, fishponds and rock sculptures.</p><br>
<p>Once overlooking the seashore, the site of the tomb is now almost 2,000 m from the sea, following a series of land reclamations.</p><br>
<p>East Hancock is a primarily residential neighbourhood in Hancock, Michigan, though it also includes the easternmost block of Quincy Street, the main street of Hancock&#39;s downtown.</p><br>
<h2>East Hancock Neighborhood Historic District</h2><br>
<p>The East Hancock Neighborhood Historic District is a nationally-recognized historic district which is a substantial subsection of the East Hancock neighborhood. The District is bounded by Front Street, Dunston Street, Vivian Street, Mason Avenue, and Cooper Avenue, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>There are 88 residences in the East Hancock Neighborhood Historic District, along with a synagogue, gas station, and WPA project. The majority of the residences were built between 1890 and 1920.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The East Hancock neighborhood was formerly characterised by a number of deep ravines originally covered with wooden sidewalks that were filled in by the Dakota Heights Land Company; the neighbourhood was then "subdivided into residential lots". Development in the neighborhood began in the 1890s and surged in the early 1900s, when a rush of prosperity increased the numberof relatively wealthy people in Hancock. The neighborhood brought together Hancock citizens involved in the business and mining sectors of the economy. Notable early residents of the area were primarily mine employees and managers. As mining declined in importance, more Hancock businessmen moved into the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Many of the residences in East Hancock were designed by prominent local architects. Styles represented in the neighborhood include Queen Anne, Stick, Shingle, Neo-Classical, Renaissance Revival, and Bungaloid.</p><br>
<p>A principal feature is a WPA-project stone staircase " from "Cooper Avenue to Front Street".</p><br>
<p>Historically, East Hancock was important as the station from which the trolley departed to the Electric Park resort.</p><br>
<p>The East Hancock Neighborhood Association was formed in 1981. It is noted for many large houses in the Queen Anne, Renaissance and shingle styles.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the Canal Crossings Condominium by Moyle Inc. has obstructed some of the view of the neighbourhood from the Portage Lake Lift Bridge, one of the things for which the project has been criticised.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>East Hancock Revisited: History of a Neighborhood, Circa 1880 - 1920 (Eleanor A. Alexander, Hancock, Michigan: 1984)</p><br>
<p>The Temple Mount , known to Muslims as the Haram esh-Sharif , a hill located in the Old City of Jerusalem, is one of the most important religious sites in the world. It has been venerated as a holy site for thousands of years by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The present site is dominated by three monumental structures from the early Umayyad period: the al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome of the Rock and the Dome of the Chain, as well as four minarets. Herodian walls and gates with additions dating back to the late Byzantine and early Islamic periods cut through the flanks of the Mount. Currently it can be reached through eleven gates, ten reserved for Muslims and one for non-Muslims, with guard posts of Israeli police in the vicinity of each.</p><br>
<p>According to the Bible, the Jewish Temples stood on the Temple Mount. According to Jewish tradition and scripture, the First Temple was built by King Solomon the son of King David in 957 BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The second was constructed under the auspices of Zerubbabel in 516 BCE and destroyed by the Roman Empire in 70 CE. Jewish tradition maintains it is here that a Third and final Temple will also be built. The location is the holiest site in Judaism and is the place Jews turn towards during prayer. Due to its extreme sanctity, many Jews will not walk on the Mount itself, to avoid unintentionally entering the area where the Holy of Holies stood, since according to Rabbinical law, some aspect of the divine presence is still present at the site.</p><br>
<p>Among Sunni Muslims, the Mount is widely considered the third holiest site in Islam. Revered as the Noble Sanctuary, the location of Muhammad&#39;s journey to Jerusalem and ascent to heaven, the site is also associated with Jewish biblical prophets who are also venerated in Islam. Umayyad Caliphs commissioned the construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock on the site. The Dome was completed in 692 CE, making it one of the oldest extant Islamic structures in the world. The Al Aqsa Mosque rests on the far southern side of the Mount, facing Mecca. The Dome of the Rock currently sits in the middle, occupying or close to the area where the Holy Temple previously stood.</p><br>
<p>In light of the dual claims of both Judaism and Islam, it is one of the most contested religious sites in the world. Since the Crusades, the Muslim community of Jerusalem has managed the site as a Waqf, without interruption. As the site is part of the Old City, controlled by Israel since 1967, both Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim sovereignty over it, and it remains a major focal point of the Arab–Israeli conflict. In an attempt to keep the status quo, the Israeli government enforces a controversial ban on prayer by non-Muslims.</p><br>
<h2>Location and dimensions</h2><br>
<p>The Temple Mount forms the northern portion of a very narrow spur of hill that slopes sharply downward from north to south. Rising above the Kidron Valley to the east and Tyropoeon Valley to the west, its peak reaches a height of 740 m above sea level. In around 19 BCE, Herod the Great extended the Mount&#39;s natural plateau by enclosing the area with four massive retaining walls and filling the voids. This artificial expansion resulted in a large flat expanse which today forms the eastern section of the Old City of Jerusalem. The trapezium shaped platform measures 488 m along the west, 470 m along the east, 315 m along the north and 280 m along the south, giving a total area of approximately 150,000 m&sup2;. The northern wall of the Mount, together with the northern section of the western wall, is hidden behind residential buildings. The southern section of the western flank is revealed and contains what is known as the Western Wall. The retaining walls on these two sides descend many meters below ground level. A northern portion of the western wall may be seen from within the Western Wall Tunnel, which was excavated through buildings adjacent to the platform. On the southern and eastern sides the walls are visible almost to their full height. The platform itself is separated from the rest of the Old City by the Tyropoeon Valley, though this once deep valley is now largely hidden beneath later deposits, and is imperceptible in places. The platform can be reached via Gate of the Chain Street – a street in the Muslim Quarter at the level of the platform, actually sitting on a monumental bridge; the bridge is no longer externally visible due to the change in ground level, but it can be seen from beneath via the Western Wall Tunnel.</p><br>
<h2>Religious significance</h2><br>
<p>The temple mount has historical and religious significance for all three of the major Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. It has particular religious significance for Judaism and Islam, and the competing claims of these faith communities has made it one of the most contested religious sites in the world.</p><br>
<h3>Judaism</h3><br>
<p>The Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism, which regards it as the place where God&#39;s divine presence is manifested more than in any other place, and is the place Jews turn towards during prayer. Due to its extreme sanctity, many Jews will not walk on the Mount itself, to avoid unintentionally entering the area where the Holy of Holies stood, since according to Rabbinical law, some aspect of the divine presence is still present at the site. It was from the Holy of Holies that the High Priest communicated directly with God.</p><br>
<p>According to the rabbinic sages whose debates produced the Talmud, it was from here the world expanded into its present form and where God gathered the dust used to create the first human, Adam. Since at least the first century CE, the two sites have been identified with one another in Judaism, this identification being subsequently perpetuated by Jewish and Christian tradition. Modern scholarship tends to regard them as distinct (see Moriah).</p><br>
<p>Jewish connection and veneration to the site arguably stems from the fact that it contains the Foundation Stone which, according to the rabbis of the Talmud, was the spot from where the world was created and expanded into its current form. It was subsequently the Holy of Holies of the Temple, the Most Holy Place in Judaism. Jewish tradition names it as the location for a number of important events which occurred in the Bible, including the Binding of Isaac, Jacob&#39;s dream, and the prayer of Isaac and Rebekah. Similarly, when the Bible recounts that King David purchased a threshing floor owned by Araunah the Jebusite, tradition locates it as being on this mount. An early Jewish text, the Genesis Rabba, states that this site is one of three about which the nations of the world cannot taunt Israel and say "you have stolen them," since it was purchased "for its full price" by David. According to the Bible, David wanted to construct a sanctuary there, but this was left to his son Solomon, who completed the task in c. 950 BCE with the construction of the First Temple.</p><br>
<p>According to the Bible, both Jewish Temples stood at the Temple Mount, though archaeological evidence only exists for the Second Temple. However, the identification of Solomons Temple with the area of the Temple Mount is widespread. According to the Bible the site should function as the center of all national life—a governmental, judicial and religious center. During the Second Temple period it functioned also as an economic center. According to Jewish tradition and scripture, the First Temple was built by King Solomon the son of King David in 957 BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The second was constructed under the auspices of Zerubbabel in 516 BCE and destroyed by the Roman Empire in 70 CE. In the 2nd century, the site was used for a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus. It was redeveloped following the Arab conquest. Jewish texts predict that the Mount will be the site of a Third and final Temple, which will be rebuilt with the coming of the Jewish Messiah. A number of vocal Jewish groups now advocate building the Third Holy Temple without delay in order to bring to pass Gods "end-time prophetic plans for Israel and the entire world."</p><br>
<p>Several passages in the Hebrew Bible indicate that during the time when they were written, the Temple Mount was identified as Mount Zion. The Mount Zion mentioned in the later parts of the Book of Isaiah, in the Book of Psalms, and the First Book of Maccabees (c. 2nd century BCE) seems to refer to the top of the hill, generally known as the Temple Mount. According to the Book of Samuel, Mount Zion was the site of the Jebusite fortress called the "stronghold of Zion", but once the First Temple was erected, according to the Bible, at the top of the Eastern Hill ("Temple Mount"), the name "Mount Zion" migrated there too. The name later migrated for a last time, this time to Jerusalem&#39;s Western Hill.</p><br>
<p>In 1217, Spanish Rabbi Judah al-Harizi found the sight of the Muslim structures on the mount profoundly disturbing. "What torment to see our holy courts converted into an alien temple!" he wrote.</p><br>
<h3>Christianity</h3><br>
<p>The Temple was of central importance in Jewish worship, in the Tanakh and the Christian Old Testament. In the New Testament, Herods Temple was the site of several events in the life of Jesus, and Christian loyalty to the site as a focal point remained long after his death. After the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, which came to be regarded by early Christians, as it was by Josephus and the sages of the Jerusalem Talmud, to be a divine act of punishment for the sins of the Jewish people, the Temple Mount lost its significance for Christian worship with the Christians considering it a fulfillment of Christs prophecy at, for example, and. It was to this end, proof of a biblical prophecy fulfilled and of Christianitys victory over Judaism with the New Covenant, that early Christian pilgrims also visited the site. Byzantine Christians, despite some signs of constructive work on the esplanade, generally neglected the Temple Mount, especially when a Jewish attempt to rebuild the Temple was destroyed by the earthquake in 363. and it became a desolate local rubbish dump, perhaps outside the city limits, as Christian worship in Jerusalem shifted to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and Jerusalems centrality was replaced by Rome.</p><br>
<p>During the Byzantine era, Jerusalem was primarily Christian and pilgrims came by the tens of thousands to experience the places where Jesus walked. After the Persian invasion in 614 many churches were razed and the site was turned into a dumpyard. The Arabs conquered the city from the Byzantine Empire which had retaken it in 629. The Byzantine ban on the Jews was lifted and they were allowed to live inside the city and visit the places of worship. Christian pilgrims were able to come and experience the Temple Mount area. The war between Seljuqs and Byzantine Empire and increasing Muslim violence against Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem instigated the Crusades. The Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 and the Dome of the Rock was given to the Augustinians, who turned it into a church, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque became the royal palace of Baldwin I of Jerusalem in 1104. The Knights Templar, who believed the Dome of the Rock was the site of the Solomon&#39;s Temple, gave it the name "Templum Domini" and set up their headquarters in the Al-Aqsa Mosque adjacent to the Dome for much of the 12th century.</p><br>
<p>In Christian art, the Circumcision of Jesus was conventionally depicted as taking place at the Temple, even though European artists until recently had no way of knowing what the Temple looked like and the Gospels do not state that the event took place at the Temple.</p><br>
<p>Though some Christians believe that the Temple will be reconstructed before, or concurrent with, the Second Coming of Jesus (also see dispensationalism), pilgrimage to the Temple Mount is not viewed as essential in the beliefs and worship of most Christians. The New Testament recounts a story of a Samaritan woman asking Jesus about the appropriate place to worship, Jerusalem or the Samaritan holy place at Mount Gerizim, to which Jesus replies,</p><br>
<p>"Woman, believe me, the hour is coming when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the Father. You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews. But the hour is coming, and is now here, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and in truth, for the Father is seeking such people to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth."</p><br>
<p>This has been construed to mean that Jesus dispensed with physical location for worship, which was a matter rather of spirit and truth.</p><br>
<h3>Islam</h3><br>
<p>Almost immediately after the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 638 CE, Caliph Omar ibn al Khatab, disgusted by the filth covering the site, had it thoroughly cleaned, and granted Jews access to the site. Among Sunni Muslims, the Mount is widely considered the third holiest site in Islam. Revered as the Noble Sanctuary, the location of Muhammads journey to Jerusalem and ascent to heaven, the site is also associated with Jewish biblical prophets who are also venerated in Islam. Muslims preferred to use the esplanade as the heart for the Muslim quarter, since it had been abandoned by Christians, to avoid disturbing the Christian quarters of Jerusalem. Umayyad Caliphs commissioned the construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock on the site. The Dome was completed in 692 CE, making it one of the oldest extant Islamic structures in the world. The Al Aqsa Mosque rests on the far southern side of the Mount, facing Mecca. The Dome of the Rock currently sits in the middle, occupying or close to the area where the Holy Temple previously stood.</p><br>
<p>A 13th-century claim to an extended region of holiness was made by Ibn Taymiyyah who asserted: "Al-Masjid al-Aqsa is the name for the whole of the place of worship built by Sulaymaan..." which, according to western tradition, presents: "...the place of worship built by Solomon" known as Solomon&#39;s Temple. Ibn Taymiyyah had also opposed giving any undue religious honors to mosques (even that of Jerusalem), to approach or rival in any way the perceived Islamic sanctity of the two most holy mosques within Islam, Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca) and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Madina).</p><br>
<p>Muslims view the site as being one of the earliest and most noteworthy places of worship of God. For a few years in the early stages of Islam, Muhammad instructed his followers to face the Mount during prayer.</p><br>
<p>The site is also important as being the site of the "Farthest Mosque" (mentioned in the Quran as the location of Muhammad&#39;s miraculous Night Journey) to heaven.:</p><br>
<p>"Exalted is He who took His Servant by night from al-Masjid al-Haram (the Sacred Mosque) to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the Further Mosque), whose surroundings We have blessed, to show him of Our signs. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the Seeing." Quran 17:1</p><br>
<p>The hadith, a collection of the sayings of the Prophet Mohammad, confirm that the location of the Al-Aqsa mosque is indeed in Jerusalem:</p><br>
<p>"When the people of Quraish did not believe me (i.e. the story of my Night Journey), I stood up in Al-Hijr and Allah displayed Jerusalem in front of me, and I began describing Jerusalem to them while I was looking at it." Sahih Bukhari: Volume 5, Book 58, Number 226.</p><br>
<p>Muslim interpretations of the Quran agree that the Mount is the site of a Temple built by Sulayman, considered a prophet in Islam, that was later destroyed.</p><br>
<p>After the construction, Muslims believe, the temple was used for the worship of one God by many prophets of Islam, including Jesus."Early Muslims regarded the building and destruction of the Temple of Solomon as a major historical and religious event, and accounts of the Temple are offered by many of the early Muslim historians and geographers (including Ibn Qutayba, Ibn al-Faqih, Mas&#39;udi, Muhallabi, and Biruni).</p><br>
<p>Fantastic tales of Solomons construction of the Temple also appear in the Qisas al-anbiya, the medieval compendia of Muslim legends about the pre-Islamic prophets." (Kramer, Martin., Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, September 18, 2000. Retrieved November 21, 2007.)</p><br>
<p>"While there is no scientific evidence that Solomon&#39;s Temple existed, all believers in any of the Abrahamic faiths perforce must accept that it did." (Khalidi, Rashid. Transforming the Face of the Holy City: Political Messages in the Built Topography of Jerusalem, Bir Zeit University, November 12, 1998.) Other Muslim scholars have used the Torah (called Tawrat in Arabic) to expand on the details of the temple.</p><br>
<p>"The Rock was in the time of Solomon the son of David 12 cubits high and there was a dome over it...It is written in the Tawrat: Be happy Jerusalem, which is Bayt al-Maqdis and the Rock which is called Haykal." al-Wasati, Fada&#39;il al Bayt al-Muqaddas, ed. Izhak Hasson (Jerusalem, 1979) pp. 72ff.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Israelite period</h3><br>
<p>The hill is believed to have been inhabited since the 4th millennium BCE. Assuming colocation with the biblical Mount Zion, its southern section would have been walled at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, in around 1850 BCE, by Canaanites who established a settlement there (or in the vicinity) named Jebus. Jewish tradition identifies it with Mount Moriah where the binding of Isaac took place. According to the Hebrew Bible, the Temple Mount was originally a threshing-floor owned by Araunah, a Jebusite. The prophet Gad suggested the area to King David as a fitting place for the erection of an altar to YHWH, since a destroying angel was standing there when God stopped a great plague in Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>David then bought the property from Araunah, for fifty pieces of silver, and erected the altar. YHWH instructed David to build a sanctuary on the site, outside the city walls on the northern edge of the hill. The building was to replace the Tabernacle, and serve as the Temple of the Israelites in Jerusalem. The Temple Mount is an important part of Biblical archaeology.</p><br>
<h3>Persian, Hasmonean and Herodian periods</h3><br>
<p>Much of the Mounts early history is synonymous with events pertaining to the Temple itself. After the destruction of Solomons Temple by Nebuchadnezzar II, construction of the Second Temple began under Cyrus in around 538 BCE, and was completed in 516 BCE. Evidence of a Hasmonean expansion of the Temple Mount has been recovered by archaeologist Leen Ritmeyer. Around 19 BCE, Herod the Great further expanded the Mount and rebuilt the temple. The ambitious project, which involved the employment of 10,000 workers, more than doubled the size of the Temple Mount to approximately 36 acre. Herod leveled the area by cutting away rock on the northwest side and raising the sloping ground to the south. He achieved this by constructing huge buttress walls and vaults, and filling the necessary sections with earth and rubble. A basilica, called by Josephus "the Royal Stoa", was constructed on the southern end of the expanded platform, which provided a focus for the citys commercial and legal transactions, and which was provided with separate access to the city below via the Robinsons Arch overpass. In addition to restoration of the Temple, its courtyards and porticoes, Herod also built the Antonia Fortress, abutting the northwestern corner of the Temple Mount, and a rainwater reservoir, Birket Israel, in the northeast. As a result of the First Jewish–Roman War, the fortress was destroyed in 70 CE by Titus, the army commander and son of Roman emperor Vespasian.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Roman period</h3><br>
<p>The city of Aelia Capitolina was built in 130 CE by the Roman emperor Hadrian, and occupied by a Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem, which was still in ruins from the First Jewish Revolt in 70 CE. Aelia came from Hadrian&#39;s nomen gentile, Aelius, while Capitolina meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a temple was built on the site of the former second Jewish temple, the Temple Mount.</p><br>
<p>Hadrian had intended the construction of the new city as a gift to the Jews, but since he had constructed a giant statue of himself in front of the Temple of Jupiter and the Temple of Jupiter had a huge statue of Jupiter inside of it, there were on the Temple Mount now two enormous graven images, which Jews considered idolatrous. It was also customary in Roman rites to sacrifice a pig in land purification ceremonies. In addition to this, Hadrian issued a decree prohibiting the practice of circumcision. These three factors, the graven images, the sacrifice of pigs before the altar, and the prohibition of circumcision, are thought to have constituted for non-Hellenized Jews a new abomination of desolation, and thus Bar Kochba launched the Third Jewish Revolt. After the Third Jewish Revolt failed, all Jews were forbidden on pain of death from entering the city or the surrounding territory around the city.</p><br>
<h3>Late Roman period</h3><br>
<p>From the 1st through the 7th centuries Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, gradually became the predominant religion of Palestine and under the Byzantines Jerusalem itself was almost completely Christian, with most of the population being Jacobite Christians of the Syrian rite.</p><br>
<p>Emperor Constantine I promoted the Christianization of Roman society, giving it precedence over pagan cults. One consequence was that Hadrian&#39;s Temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount was demolished immediately following the First Council of Nicea in 325 CE on orders of Constantine.</p><br>
<p>The Bordaeux Pilgrim, who visited Jerusalem in 333–334, during the reign of Emperor Constantine I, wrote that "There are two statues of Hadrian, and, not far from them, a pierced stone to which the Jews come every year and anoint. They mourn and rend their garments, and then depart." The occasion is assumed to have been Tisha b&#39;Av, since decades later Jerome related that that was the only day on which Jews were permitted to enter Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>Constantine&#39;s nephew Emperor Julian granted permission in the year 363 for the Jews to rebuild the Temple. However, no contemporary Jewish sources mention this episode directly.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine period</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence in the form of an elaborate mosaic floor similar to the one in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and multiple fragments of an elaborate marble Templon (chancel screen) prove that an elaborate Byzantine church or monastery or other public building stood on the Temple Mount in Byzantine times.</p><br>
<h3>Sassanid period</h3><br>
<p>In 610, the Sassanid Empire drove the Byzantine Empire out of the Middle East, giving the Jews control of Jerusalem for the first time in centuries. The Jews in Palestine were allowed to set up a vassal state under the Sassanid Empire called the Sassanid Jewish Commonwealth which lasted for five years. Jewish rabbis ordered the restart of animal sacrifice for the first time since the time of Second Temple and started to reconstruct the Jewish Temple. Shortly before the Byzantines took the area back five years later in 615, the Persians gave control to the Christian population, who tore down the partially built Jewish Temple edifice and turned it into a garbage dump, which is what it was when the Rashidun Caliph Umar took the city in 637.</p><br>
<h3>Early Muslim period</h3><br>
<p>In 637 Arabs besieged and captured the city from the Byzantine Empire, which had defeated the Persian forces and their allies, and reconquered the city. There are no contemporary records, but many traditions, about the origin of the main Islamic buildings on the mount. A popular account from later centuries is that the Rashidun Caliph Umar was led to the place reluctantly by the Christian patriarch Sophronius. He found it covered with rubbish, but the sacred Rock was found with the help of a converted Jew, Kab al-Ahbar. Al-Ahbar advised Umar to build a mosque to the north of the rock, so that worshippers would face both the rock and Mecca, but instead Umar chose to build it to the south of the rock. It became known as the Al-Aqsa Mosque. According to Muslim sources, Jews participated in the construction of the haram, laying the groundwork for both the Al-Aqsa and Dome of the Rock mosques. The first known eyewitness testimony is that of the pilgrim Arculf who visited about 670. According to Arculfs account as recorded by Adomnán, he saw a rectangular wooden house of prayer built over some ruins, large enough to hold 3,000 people.</p><br>
<p>In 691 an octagonal Islamic building topped by a dome was built by the Caliph Abd al-Malik around the rock, for a myriad of political, dynastic and religious reasons, built on local and Quranic traditions articulating the sites holiness, a process in which textual and architectural narratives reinforced one another. The shrine became known as the Dome of the Rock (قبة الصخرة, Qubbat as-Sakhra). (The dome itself was covered in gold in 1920.) In 715 the Umayyads, led by the Caliph al-Walid I, transformed the temple shops Chanuyot nearby into a mosque (see illustrations and detailed drawing ), which they named the Aqsa Mosque (المسجد الأقصى, al-Masjid al-Aqsa, "Furthest Mosque"), corresponding to the Islamic belief of Muhammads miraculous nocturnal journey as recounted in the Quran and hadith. The term "Noble Sanctuary" or "Haram al-Sharif", as it was called later by the Mamluks and Ottomans, refers to the whole area that surrounds that Rock.</p><br>
<p>For Muslims, the importance of the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque makes Jerusalem the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. The mosque and shrine are currently administered by a Waqf (an Islamic trust). The various inscriptions on the Dome walls and the artistic decorations imply a symbolic eschatological significance of the structure.</p><br>
<h3>Crusader and Ayyubid period</h3><br>
<p>The Crusader period began in 1099 with the First Crusades capture of Jerusalem. After the citys conquest, the Crusading order known as the Knights Templar was granted use of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount. This was probably by Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Warmund, Patriarch of Jerusalem at the Council of Nablus in January 1120, which gave the Templars a headquarters in the captured Al-Aqsa Mosque. The Temple Mount had a mystique because it was above what were believed to be the ruins of the Temple of Solomon. The Crusaders therefore referred to the Al Aqsa Mosque as Solomon&#39;s Temple, and it was from this location that the new Order took the name of "Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon", or "Templar" knights.</p><br>
<p>In 1187, once he retook Jerusalem, Saladin removed all traces of Christian worship from the Temple Mount, returning the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque to their original purposes. It remained in Muslim hands thereafter, even during the relatively short periods of Crusader rule following the Sixth Crusade.</p><br>
<h3>Mamluk period</h3><br>
<p>There are several Mamluk buildings on and around the Haram esplanade. The Mamluks also raised the level of Jerusalem&#39;s Central or Tyropoean Valey bordering the Temple Mount from the west by constructing huge substructures, on which they then built on a large scale. The Mamluk-period substructures and over-ground buildings are thus covering much of the Herodian western wall of the Temple Mount.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>Following the Ottoman conquest of Palestine in 1516, the Ottoman authorities continued the policy of prohibiting non-Muslims from setting foot on the Temple Mount until the early 19th century, when non-Muslims were again permitted to visit the site.</p><br>
<p>In 1867, a team from the Royal Engineers, led by Lieutenant Charles Warren and financed by the Palestine Exploration Fund (P.E.F.), discovered a series of underground tunnels near the Temple Mount. Warren secretly excavated some tunnels near the Temple Mount walls and was the first one to document their lower courses. Warren also conducted some small scale excavations inside the Temple Mount, by removing rubble that blocked passages leading from the Double Gate chamber.</p><br>
<h3>British Mandatory period</h3><br>
<p>Between 1922 and 1924, the Dome of the Rock was restored by the Islamic Higher Council.</p><br>
<h3>Jordanian period</h3><br>
<p>Jordan undertook two renovations of the Dome of the Rock, replacing the leaking, wooden inner dome with an aluminum dome in 1952, and, when the new dome leaked, carrying out a second restoration between 1959 and 1964.</p><br>
<p>Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories during this period.</p><br>
<h3>Israeli period</h3><br>
<p>On 7 June 1967, during the Six-Day War, Israeli forces advanced beyond the 1949 Armistice Agreement Line into West Bank territories, taking control of the Old City of Jerusalem, inclusive of the Temple Mount.</p><br>
<p>The Chief Rabbi of the Israeli Defense Forces, Shlomo Goren, led the soldiers in religious celebrations on the Temple Mount and at the Western Wall. The Israeli Chief Rabbinate also declared a religious holiday on the anniversary, called "Yom Yerushalayim" (Jerusalem Day), which became a national holiday to commemorate the reunification of Jerusalem. Many saw the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount as a miraculous liberation of biblical-messianic proportions. A few days after the war was over 200,000 Jews flocked to the Western Wall in the first mass Jewish pilgrimage near the Mount since the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. Islamic authorities did not disturb Goren when he went to pray on the Mount until, on the Ninth Day of Av, he brought 50 followers and introduced both a shofar, and a portable ark to pray, an innovation which alarmed the Waqf authorities and led to a deterioration of relations between the Muslim authorities and the Israeli government. The then Prime Minister of Israel, Levi Eshkol, gave control of access to the Temple Mount to the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf. The site has since been a flash-point between Israel and local Muslims.</p><br>
<p>In June 1969 an Australian tried to set fire to Al-Aqsa; on April 11, 1982 a Jew hid in the Dome of the Rock and sprayed gunfire, killing 2 Palestinians and wounding 44; in 1974, 1977 and 1983 groups led by Yoel Lerner conspired to blow up both the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa; on 26 January 1984 Waqf guards detected members of Bnei Yehuda, a messianic cult of former gangsters turned mystics based in Lifta, trying to infiltrate the area to blow it up. According to Palestinian historian Rashid Khalidi, investigative journalism has shown this allegation to be false. Rocks were eventually thrown, while security forces fired rounds that ended up killing 21 people and injuring 150 more. An Israeli inquiry found Israeli forces at fault, but it also concluded that charges could not be brought against any particular individuals. In December 1997, Israeli security services preempted an attempt by Jewish extremists to throw a pigs head wrapped in the pages of the Quran into the area, in order to spark a riot and embarrass the government.</p><br>
<p>Between 1992 and 1994, the Jordanian government undertook the unprecedented step of gilding the dome of the Dome of the Rock, covering it with 5000 gold plates, and restoring and reinforcing the structure. The Salah Eddin minbar was also restored. The project was paid for by King Hussein personally, at a cost of $8 million. The Temple Mount remains, under the terms of the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty, under Jordanian custodianship.</p><br>
<p>On September 28, 2000, Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount. He toured the site, together with a Likud party delegation and a large number of Israeli riot police. The visit was seen as a provocative gesture by many Palestinians, who gathered around the site. Demonstrations quickly turned violent, with rubber bullets and tear gas being used. This event is often cited as one of the catalysts of the Second Palestinian Intifada. Evidence reveals, however, that one month earlier, Palestinian Authority Justice Minister Freih Abu Middein warned that: "Violence is near and the Palestinian people are willing to sacrifice even 5,000 casualties." A few weeks before the outbreak, the official PA publication, Al-Sabah, declared: "The time for the Intifada has arrived... the time for jihad has arrived." Palestinian leader Marwan Barghouti would later admit that the Intifada was planned and Sharon merely "provided a good excuse" for the violence.</p><br>
<h2>Status quo</h2><br>
<p>Since 1757 a status quo has been applied for the ruling of the Holy places in Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>The situation between Jews and Muslims was confirmed in 1919 and Faisal–Weizmann Agreement concluded that:</p><br>
<p>Article V. No regulation nor law shall be made prohibiting or interfering with the free exercise of religion; (...)Article VI. The Mohammedan Holy Places shall be under Mohammedan control.</p><br>
<p>In 1929 tensions around the Western Wall in which Jews were accused of violating the status quo generated riots during which 133 Jews and 110 Arabs were killed.</p><br>
<p>Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the status quo was not respected any more after Jordan took control of the Old City of Jerusalem and Jews were prohibited from visiting their Holy Places in the city.</p><br>
<h3>Under Israeli control</h3><br>
<p>A few days after the Six-Day War, on June 17, 1967, a meeting was held at al-Aqsa between Moshe Dayan and Muslim religious authorities of Jerusalem reformulating the status quo. Dayans offer was objected to by the Muslims, as they totally rejected the Israeli conquest of Jerusalem and the Mount. Some Jews, led by Shlomo Goren, then the military chief rabbi, had objected as well, claiming the decision handed over the complex to the Muslims, since the Western Walls holiness is derived from the Mount and symbolizes exile, while praying on the Mount symbolizes freedom and the return of the Jewish people to their homeland. The President of the High Court of Justice, Aharon Barak, in response to an appeal in 1976 against police interference with an individuals putative right to prayer on the site, expressed the view that, while Jews had a right to prayer there, it was not absolute but subject to the public interest and the rights of other groups. Israels courts have considered the issue as one beyond their remit, and, given the delicacy of the matter, under political jurisdiction. He wrote:</p><br>
<p>The basic principle is that every Jew has the right to enter the Temple Mount, to pray there, and to have communion with his maker. This is part of the religious freedom of worship, it is part of the freedom of expression. However, as with every human right, it is not absolute, but a relative right... Indeed, in a case where there is near certainty that injury may be caused to the public interest if a person&#39;s rights of religious worship and freedom of expression would be realized, it is possible to limit the rights of the person in order to uphold the public interest.</p><br>
<p>Police continued to forbid Jews to pray on the Temple Mount. Subsequently, several prime ministers also made attempts to change the status quo, but failed to do so. In October 1986, an agreement between the Temple Mount Faithful, the Supreme Muslim Council and police, which would allow short visits in small groups, was exercised once and never repeated, after 2,000 Muslims armed with stones and bottles attacked the group and stoned worshipers at the Western Wall. During the 1990s, additional attempts were made for Jewish prayer on the Temple Mount, which were stopped by Israeli police.</p><br>
<p>Until 2000, non-Muslim visitors could enter the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque and the Islamic Museum by getting a ticket from the Waqf. That procedure ended when the Second Intifada erupted. Fifteen years later, negotiation between Israel and Jordan might result in reopening of those sites once again.</p><br>
<p>In the 2010s, fear arose among Palestinians that Israel planned to change the status quo and permit Jewish prayers or that the al-Aqsa mosque might be damaged or destroyed by Israel. Al-Aqsa was used as a base for attacks on visitors and the police from which stones, firebombs and fireworks were thrown. The Israeli police had never entered al-Aqsa Mosque until November 5, 2014, when dialog with the leaders of the Waqf and the rioters failed. This resulted in imposing strict limitations on entry of visitors to the Temple Mount. Israeli leadership repeatedly stated that the status quo would not change. According to then Jerusalem police commissioner Yohanan Danino, the place is at the center of a "holy war" and "anyone who wants to change the status quo on the Temple Mount should not be allowed up there", citing an "extreme right-wing agenda to change the status quo on the Temple Mount&quot Hamas and Islamic Jihad continue to erroneously assert that the Israeli government plans to destroy Al-Aksa Mosque, resulting in chronic terrorist attacks and rioting.</p><br>
<p>There have been several changes to the status quo: (1) Jewish visits are often prevented or considerably restricted. (2) Jews and other non-Islamic visitors can only visit from Sunday to Thursday, for four hours each day. (3) Visits inside the mosques are not allowed. (4) Jews with religious appearance must visit in groups monitored by Waqf guards and policemen.</p><br>
<p>Many Palestinians believe the status quo is threatened since right-wing Israelis have been challenging it with more force and frequency, asserting a religious right to pray there. Until Israel banned them, members of Murabitat, a group of women, cried Allah Akbar at groups of Jewish visitors to remind them the Temple Mount was still in Muslim hands.</p><br>
<h2>Management and access</h2><br>
<p>An Islamic Waqf has managed the Temple Mount continuously since the Muslim reconquest of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187. On June 7, 1967, soon after Israel had taken control of the area during the Six-Day War, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol assured that "no harm whatsoever shall come to the places sacred to all religions". Together with the extension of Israeli jurisdiction and administration over east Jerusalem, the Knesset passed the Preservation of the Holy Places Law, ensuring protection of the Holy Places against desecration, as well as freedom of access thereto. The site remains within the area controlled by the State of Israel, with administration of the site remaining in the hands of the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf.</p><br>
<p>Although freedom of access was enshrined in the law, as a security measure, the Israeli government currently enforces a ban on non-Muslim prayer on the site. Non-Muslims who are observed praying on the site are subject to expulsion by the police. At various times, when there is fear of Arab rioting upon the mount resulting in throwing stones from above towards the Western Wall Plaza, Israel has prevented Muslim men under 45 from praying in the compound, citing these concerns. Sometimes such restrictions have coincided with Friday prayers during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. Normally, West Bank Palestinians are allowed access to Jerusalem only during Islamic holidays, with access usually restricted to men over 35 and women of any age eligible for permits to enter the city. Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, which because of Israel&#39;s annexation of Jerusalem, hold Israeli permanent residency cards, and Israeli Arabs, are permitted unrestricted access to the Temple Mount. The Mughrabi Gate is the only entrance to the Temple Mount accessible to non-Muslims.</p><br>
<h2>Jewish attitudes towards entering the site</h2><br>
<p>Due to religious restrictions on entering the most sacred areas of the Temple Mount (see following section), the Western Wall, a retaining wall for the Temple Mount and remnant of the Second Temple structure, is considered by some rabbinical authorities to be the holiest accessible site for Jews to pray at. A 2013 Knesset committee hearing considered allowing Jews to pray at the site, amidst heated debate. Arab-Israeli MPs were ejected for disrupting the hearing, after shouting at the chairman, calling her a "pyromaniac". Religious Affairs Minister Eli Ben-Dahan of Jewish Home said his ministry was seeking legal ways to enable Jews to pray at the site.</p><br>
<h3>Jewish religious law concerning entry to the site</h3><br>
<p>During Temple times, entry to the Mount was limited by a complex set of purity laws. Those who were not of the Jewish nation were prohibited from entering the inner court of the Temple. A hewn stone measuring 60 x 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered in 1871 near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem in which it outlined this prohibition:</p><br>
<p>Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul&#39;s Museum of Antiquities.</p><br>
<p>Maimonides wrote that it was only permitted to enter the site to fulfill a religious precept. After the destruction of the Temple there was discussion as to whether the site, bereft of the Temple, still maintained its holiness or not. Jewish codifiers accepted the opinion of Maimonides who ruled that the holiness of the Temple sanctified the site for eternity and consequently the restrictions on entry to the site are still currently in force. While secular Jews ascend freely, the question of whether ascending is permitted is a matter of some debate among religious authorities, with a majority holding that it is permitted to ascend to the Temple Mount, but not to step on the site of the inner courtyards of the ancient Temple. The question then becomes whether the site can be ascertained accurately. A second complex legal debate centers around the precise divine punishment for stepping onto these forbidden spots.</p><br>
<p>There is debate over whether reports that Maimonides himself ascended the Mount are reliable. One such report claims that he did so on Thursday, October 21, 1165, during the Crusader period. Some early scholars however, claim that entry onto certain areas of the Mount is permitted. It appears that Radbaz also entered the Mount and advised others how to do this. He permits entry from all the gates into the 135×135 cubits of the Women&#39;s Courtyard in the east, since the biblical prohibition only applies to the 187×135 cubits of the Temple in the west. There are also Christian and Islamic sources which indicate that Jews accessed the site, but these visits may have been made under duress.</p><br>
<h3>Opinions of contemporary rabbis concerning entry to the site</h3><br>
<p>A few hours after the Temple Mount came under Israeli control during the Six-Day War, a message from the Chief Rabbis of Israel, Isser Yehuda Unterman and Yitzhak Nissim was broadcast, warning that Jews were not permitted to enter the site. This warning was reiterated by the Council of the Chief Rabbinate a few days later, which issued an explanation written by Rabbi Bezalel Jolti (Zolti) that "Since the sanctity of the site has never ended, it is forbidden to enter the Temple Mount until the Temple is built."</p><br>
<p>A major critic of the decision of the Chief Rabbinate was Rabbi Shlomo Goren, the chief rabbi of the IDF. Although there was considerable opposition, the conference consensus was to confirm the ban on entry to Jews. The ruling said "We have been warned, since time immemorial, against entering the entire area of the Temple Mount and have indeed avoided doing so." According to Ron Hassner, the ruling "brilliantly" solved the government&#39;s problem of avoiding ethnic conflict, since those Jews who most respected rabbinical authority were those most likely to clash with Muslims on the Mount.</p><br>
<p>Rabbinical consensus in the post-1967 period, held that it is forbidden for Jews to enter any part of the Temple Mount, and in January 2005 a declaration was signed confirming the 1967 decision.</p><br>
<p>While Rabbi Moshe Feinstein permitted, in principle, entry to some parts of the site, most other Haredi rabbis are of the opinion that the Mount is off limits to Jews and non-Jews alike. Their opinions against entering the Temple Mount are based on the current political climate surrounding the Mount, along with the potential danger of entering the hallowed area of the Temple courtyard and the impossibility of fulfilling the ritual requirement of cleansing oneself with the ashes of a red heifer. The boundaries of the areas which are completely forbidden, while having large portions in common, are delineated differently by various rabbinic authorities.</p><br>
<p>However, there is a growing body of Modern Orthodox and national religious rabbis who encourage visits to certain parts of the Mount, which they believe are permitted according to most medieval rabbinical authorities. These authorities demand an attitude of veneration on the part of Jews ascending the Temple Mount, ablution in a mikveh prior to the ascent, and the wearing of non-leather shoes. Some rabbinic authorities are now of the opinion that it is imperative for Jews to ascend in order to halt the ongoing process of Islamization of the Temple Mount. Maimonides, perhaps the greatest codifier of Jewish Law, wrote in Laws of the Chosen House ch 7 Law 15 "One may bring a dead body in to the (lower sanctified areas of the) Temple Mount and there is no need to say that the ritually impure (from the dead) may enter there, because the dead body itself can enter". One who is ritually impure through direct or in-direct contact of the dead cannot walk in the higher sanctified areas. For those who are visibly Jewish, they have no choice, as it has become unofficially part of the status quo on the Mount. Many of these recent opinions rely on archaeological evidence.</p><br>
<p>In December 2013, the two Chief Rabbis of Israel, David Lau and Yitzhak Yosef, reiterated the ban on Jews entering the Temple Mount. They wrote, "In light of neglecting, we once again warn that nothing has changed and this strict prohibition remains in effect for the entire area ".</p><br>
<p>On the occasion of an upsurge in Palestinian knifing attacks on Israelis, associated with fears that Israel was changing the status quo on the Mount, the Haredi newspaper Mishpacha ran a notification in Arabic asking their cousins, Palestinians, to stop trying to murder members of their congregation, since they were vehemently opposed to ascending the Mount and consider such visits proscribed by Jewish law.</p><br>
<h2>Current features</h2><br>
<h3>Dome of the Rock platform</h3><br>
<p>A flat platform was built around the peak of the Temple Mount, carrying the Dome of the Rock; the peak just breaches the floor level of the upper platform within the Dome of the Rock, in the shape of a large limestone outcrop, which is part of the bedrock. Beneath the surface of this rock there is a cave known as the Well of Souls, originally accessible only by a narrow hole in the rock itself; the Crusaders hacked open an entrance to the cave from the south, by which it can now be entered.</p><br>
<p>There is also a smaller domed building on the upper platform, slightly to the east of the Dome of the Rock, known as the Dome of the Chain — traditionally the location where a chain once rose to heaven.</p><br>
<p>Several stairways rise to the upper platform from the lower; that at the northwest corner is believed by some archaeologists be part of a much wider monumental staircase, mostly hidden or destroyed, and dating from the Second Temple era.</p><br>
<h3>Lower platform</h3><br>
<p>The lower platform – which constitutes most of the surface of the Temple Mount – has at its southern end the al-Aqsa Mosque, which takes up most of the width of the Mount. Gardens take up the eastern and most of the northern side of the platform; the far north of the platform houses an Islamic school.</p><br>
<p>The lower platform also houses an ablution fountain (known as al-Kas), originally supplied with water via a long narrow aqueduct leading from the so-called Solomons Pools pools near Bethlehem, but now supplied from Jerusalems water mains.</p><br>
<p>There are several cisterns beneath the lower platform, designed to collect rain water as a water supply. These have various forms and structures, seemingly built in different periods, ranging from vaulted chambers built in the gap between the bedrock and the platform, to chambers cut into the bedrock itself. Of these, the most notable are (numbering traditionally follows Wilson&#39;s scheme):</p><br>
<p>Cistern 1 (located under the northern side of the upper platform). There is a speculation that it had a function connected with the altar of the Second Temple (and possibly of the earlier Temple),</p><br>
<p>or with the bronze sea.</p><br>
<p>Cistern 5 (located under the south eastern corner of the upper platform) — a long and narrow chamber, with a strange anti-clockwise curved section at its north western corner, and containing within it a doorway currently blocked by earth. The cistern&#39;s position and design is such that there has been speculation it had a function connected with the altar of the Second Temple (and possibly of the earlier Temple), or with the bronze sea. Charles Warren thought that the altar of burnt offerings was located at the north western end.</p><br>
<p>Cistern 8 (located just north of the al-Aqsa Mosque) — known as the Great Sea, a large rock hewn cavern, the roof supported by pillars carved from the rock; the chamber is particularly cave-like and atmospheric, and its maximum water capacity is several hundred thousand gallons.</p><br>
<p>Cistern 9 (located just south of cistern 8, and directly under the al-Aqsa Mosque) — known as the Well of the Leaf due to its leaf-shaped plan, also rock hewn.</p><br>
<p>Cistern 11 (located east of cistern 9) — a set of vaulted rooms forming a plan shaped like the letter E. Probably the largest cistern, it has the potential to house over 700,000 gallons of water.</p><br>
<p>Cistern 16/17 (located at the centre of the far northern end of the Temple Mount). Despite the currently narrow entrances, this cistern (17 and 16 are the same cistern) is a large vaulted chamber, which Warren described as looking like the inside of the cathedral at Cordoba (which was previously a mosque). Warren believed that it was almost certainly built for some other purpose, and was only adapted into a cistern at a later date; he suggested that it might have been part of a general vault supporting the northern side of the platform, in which case substantially more of the chamber exists than is used for a cistern.</p><br>
<h3>Gates</h3><br>
<p>The retaining walls of the platform contain several gateways, all currently blocked. In the eastern wall is the Golden Gate, through which legend states the Jewish Messiah would enter Jerusalem. On the southern face are the Hulda Gates — the triple gate (which has three arches) and the double gate (which has two arches, and is partly obscured by a Crusader building); these were the entrance and exit (respectively) to the Temple Mount from Ophel (the oldest part of Jerusalem), and the main access to the Mount for ordinary Jews. In the western face, near the southern corner, is the Barclays Gate – only half visible due to a building (the "house of Abu Saud") on the northern side. Also in the western face, hidden by later construction but visible via the recent Western Wall Tunnels, and only rediscovered by Warren, is Warrens Gate; the function of these western gates is obscure, but many Jews view Warrens Gate as particularly holy, due to its location due west of the Dome of the Rock. Traditional belief considers the Dome of the Rock to have earlier been the location at which the Holy of Holies was placed; numerous alternative opinions exist, based on study and calculations, such as those of Tuvia Sagiv.</p><br>
<p>Warren was able to investigate the inside of these gates. Warrens Gate and the Golden Gate simply head towards the centre of the Mount, fairly quickly giving access to the surface by steps. Barclays Gate is similar, but abruptly turns south as it does so; the reason for this is currently unknown. The double and triple gates (the Huldah Gates) are more substantial; heading into the Mount for some distance they each finally have steps rising to the surface just north of the al-Aqsa Mosque. The passageway for each is vaulted, and has two aisles (in the case of the triple gate, a third aisle exists for a brief distance beyond the gate); the eastern aisle of the double gates and western of the triple gates reach the surface, the other aisles terminating some way before the steps – Warren believed that one aisle of each original passage was extended when the al-Aqsa Mosque blocked the original surface exits.</p><br>
<p>In the process of investigating Cistern 10, Warren discovered tunnels that lay under the Triple Gate passageway. These passages lead in erratic directions, some leading beyond the southern edge of the Temple Mount (they are at a depth below the base of the walls); their purpose is currently unknown – as is whether they predate the Temple Mount – a situation not helped by the fact that apart from Warren&#39;s expedition no one else is known to have visited them.</p><br>
<p>Altogether, there are six major sealed gates and a postern, listed here counterclockwise, dating from either the Roman/Herodian, Byzantine, or Early Muslim periods:</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Jana&#39;iz/al-Buraq (Gate of the Funerals/of al-Buraq); eastern wall; a hardly noticeable postern, or maybe an improvised gate, a short distance south of the Golden Gate</p><br>
<p>Golden Gate (Bab al-Zahabi); eastern wall (northern third), a double gate:</p><br>
<p>Warren&#39;s Gate; western wall, now only visible from the Western Wall Tunnel</p><br>
<p>Bab an-Nabi (Gate of the Prophet) or Barclays Gate; western wall, visible from the al-Buraq Mosque inside the Haram, and from the Western Wall plaza (womens section) and the adjacent building (the so-called house of Abu Sa&#39;ud)</p><br>
<p>Double Gate (Bab al-Thulathe; possibly one of the Huldah Gates); southern wall, underneath the Al-Aqsa Mosque</p><br>
<p>Triple Gate; southern wall, outside Solomon&#39;s Stables/Marwani Mosque</p><br>
<p>Single Gate; southern wall, outside Solomon&#39;s Stables/Marwani Mosque</p><br>
<p>There are currently eleven open gates offering access to the Muslim Haram al-Sharif.</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Asbat (Gate of the Tribes); north-east corner</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Hitta/Huttah (Gate of Remission, Pardon, or Absolution); northern wall</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Atim/&#39;Atm/Attim (Gate of Darkness); northern wall</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Ghawanima (Gate of Bani Ghanim); north-west corner</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Majlis / an-Nazir/Nadhir (Council Gate / Inspector&#39;s Gate); western wall (northern third)</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Hadid (Iron Gate); western wall (central part)</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Qattanin (Gate of the Cotton Merchants); western wall (central part)</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Matarah/Mathara (Ablution Gate); western wall (central part)</p><br>
<p>Two twin gates follow south of the Ablution Gate, the Tranquility Gate and the Gate of the Chain:</p><br>
<p>Bab as-Salam / al-Sakina (Tranquility Gate / Gate of the Dwelling), the northern one of the two; western wall (central part)</p><br>
<p>Bab as-Silsileh (Gate of the Chain), the southern one of the two; western wall (central part)</p><br>
<p>Bab al-Magharbeh/Maghariba (Moroccans&#39; Gate/Gate of the Moors); western wall (southern third); the only entrance for non-Muslims</p><br>
<p>A twelfth gate still open during Ottoman rule is now closed to the public:</p><br>
<p>Bab as-Sarai (Gate of the Seraglio); a small gate to the former residence of the Pasha of Jerusalem; western wall, northern part (between the Bani Ghanim and Council gates).</p><br>
<h3>Solomon's Stables/Marwani Mosque</h3><br>
<p>East of and joined to the triple gate passageway is a large vaulted area, supporting the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount platform – which is substantially above the bedrock at this point – the vaulted chambers here are popularly referred to as Solomon&#39;s Stables. They were used as stables by the Crusaders, but were built by Herod the Great – along with the platform they were built to support.</p><br>
<h3>Minarets</h3><br>
<p>The existing four minarets include three near the Western Wall and one near the northern wall. The first minaret was constructed on the southwest corner of the Temple Mount in 1278. The second was built in 1297 by order of a Mameluk king, the third by a governor of Jerusalem in 1329, and the last in 1367.</p><br>
<h2>Alterations to antiquities and damage to existing structures</h2><br>
<p>Due to the extreme political sensitivity of the site, no real archaeological excavations have ever been conducted on the Temple Mount itself. Protests commonly occur whenever archaeologists conduct projects near the Mount. This sensitivity has not, however, prevented the Muslim Waqf from destroying archeological evidence on a number of occasions. Aside from visual observation of surface features, most other archaeological knowledge of the site comes from the 19th-century survey carried out by Charles Wilson and Charles Warren and others.</p><br>
<p>After the Six-Day War of 1967, Israeli archeologists began a series of excavations near the site at the southern wall that uncovered finds from the Second Temple period through Roman, Umayyad and Crusader times. Over the period 1970–88, a number of tunnels were excavated in the vicinity, including one that passed to the west of the Mount and became known as the Western Wall Tunnel, which was opened to the public in 1996. The same year the Waqf began construction of a new mosque in the structures known since Crusader times as Solomon&#39;s Stables. Many Israelis regarded this as a radical change of the status quo, which should not have been undertaken without first consulting the Israeli government. The project was done without attention to the possibility of disturbing historically significant archaeological material, with stone and ancient artifacts treated without regard to their preservation.</p><br>
<p>In October 1999, the Islamic Waqf, and the Islamic Movement conducted an illegal dig which inflicted much archaeological damage. The earth from this operation, which has archeological wealth relevant to Jewish, Christian and Muslim history, was removed by heavy machinery and unceremoniously dumped by trucks into the nearby Kidron Valley. Although the archeological finds in the earth are already not in situ, this soil still contains great archeological potential. No archeological excavation was ever conducted on the Temple Mount, and this soil was the only archeological information that has ever been available to anyone. For this reason Israeli archaeologists Dr. Gabriel Barkay and Zachi Zweig established a project sifting all the earth in this dump: the Temple Mount Sifting Project.</p><br>
<p>Among finds uncovered in rubble removed from the Temple Mount were:</p><br>
<p>The imprint of a seal thought to have belonged to a priestly Jewish family mentioned in the Old Testament&#39;s Book of Jeremiah.</p><br>
<p>More than 4300 coins from various periods. Many of them are from the Jewish revolt that preceded the destruction of the Second Temple by Roman legions in 70 CE emblazoned with the words "Freedom of Zion"</p><br>
<p>Arrowheads shot by Babylonian archers 2,500 years ago, and others launched by Roman siege machinery 500 years later.</p><br>
<p>Unique floor slabs of the opus sectile technique that were used to pave the Temple Mount courts. This is also mentioned in Josephus accounts and the Babylonian Talmud.</p><br>
<p>In late 2002, a bulge of about 700 mm was reported in the southern retaining wall part of the Temple Mount. A Jordanian team of engineers recommended replacing or resetting most of the stones in the affected area. In February 2004, the eastern wall of the Mount was damaged by an earthquake. The damage threatened to topple sections of the wall into the area known as Solomon&#39;s Stables. A few days later, a portion of retaining wall, supporting the earthen ramp that led from the Western Wall plaza to the Gate of the Moors on the Temple Mount, collapsed. In 2007 the Israel Antiquities Authority started work on the construction of a temporary wooden pedestrian pathway to replace the Mugrabi Gate ramp after a landslide in 2005 made it unsafe and in danger of collapse. The works sparked condemnation from Arab leaders.</p><br>
<p>In July 2007 the Muslim religious trust which administers the Mount began digging a 400-metre-long, 1.5-metre-deep trench from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock in order to replace 40-year-old electric cables in the area. Israeli archaeologists accused the waqf of a deliberate act of cultural vandalism.</p><br>
<p>Israelis allege that Palestinians are deliberately removing significant amounts of archaeological evidence about the Jewish past of the site and claim to have found significant artifacts in the fill removed by bulldozers and trucks from the Temple Mount. Since the Waqf is granted almost full autonomy on the Islamic holy sites, Israeli archaeologists have been prevented from inspecting the area, and are restricted to conducting excavations around the Temple Mount. Muslims allege that the Israelis are deliberately damaging the remains of Islamic-era buildings found in their excavations.</p><br>
<h2>Recent events</h2><br>
<p>The Litvish Haredi newspaper Yated Neeman, which is controlled by leading Litvish Haredi rabbis including Rabbi Yosef Shalom Eliashiv and Rabbi Nissim Karelitz, accused the rabbis of transgressing a decree punishable by death through the hands of heaven.&#39;</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>Ellesmere Island  is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Lying within the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, it is considered part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands, with Cape Columbia being the most northerly point of land in Canada. It comprises an area of 196,235 km&sup2; and the total length of the island is 830 km, making it the worlds tenth largest island and Canadas third largest island. The Arctic Cordillera mountain system covers much of Ellesmere Island, making it the most mountainous in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The Arctic willow is the only woody species to grow on Ellesmere Island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first human inhabitants of Ellesmere Island were small bands drawn to the area for Peary caribou, muskox, and marine mammal hunting about 2000–1000 BCE.</p><br>
<p>As was the case for the Dorset (or Palaeoeskimo) hunters and the pioneering Neoeskimos, the Post-Ruin Island and Late Thule culture Inuit used the Bache Peninsula region extensively both summer and winter until environmental, ecological, and possibly social circumstances caused the area to be abandoned. It was the last region in the Canadian High Arctic to be depopulated during the Little Ice Age, attesting to its general economic importance as part of the Smith Sound culture sphere of which it was occasionally a part and sometimes the principal settlement component.</p><br>
<p>Vikings from the Greenland colonies reached Ellesmere Island, Skraeling Island, and Ruin Island during hunting expeditions and trading with the Inuit groups. Unusual structures on Bache peninsula may be the remains of a late-period Dorset stone longhouse.</p><br>
<p>The first European to sight the island after the height of the Little Ice Age was William Baffin in 1616. Ellesmere Island was named in 1852 by Edward Inglefields expedition after Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere. The US expedition led by Adolphus Greely in 1881 crossed the island from east to west, establishing Fort Conger in the northern part of the island. The Greely expedition found fossil forests on Ellesmere Island in the late 1880s. Stenkul Fiord was first explored in 1902 by Per Schei, a member of Otto Sverdrups 2nd Norwegian Polar Expedition.</p><br>
<p>The Ellesmere Ice Shelf was documented by the British Arctic Expedition of 1875–76, in which Lieutenant Pelham Aldrichs party went from Cape Sheridan (82&deg;28&prime;N latitude, 61&deg;30&prime;W longitude) west to Cape Alert (82&deg;16&prime;N latitude, 85&deg;33&prime;W longitude), including the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf. In 1906 Robert Peary led an expedition in northern Ellesmere Island, from Cape Sheridan along the coast to the western side of Nansen Sound (93°W). During Pearys expedition, the Ice Shelf was continuous; a modern estimate is that it covered 8,900 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, Jon Turk and Erik Boomer completed the first known circumnavigation of Ellesmere Island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ellesmere Island is separated to the east by Nares Strait from Greenland, to the west by Eureka Sound and Nansen Sound from Axel Heiberg Island, and to the south by Jones Sound and Cardigan Strait from Devon Island.</p><br>
<p>Ellesmere Island contains Canada&#39;s northernmost point, Cape Columbia at 83°6′41″N.</p><br>
<h3>Protected areas</h3><br>
<p>More than one-fifth of the island is protected as Quttinirpaaq National Park (formerly Ellesmere Island National Park Reserve), which includes seven fjords and a variety of glaciers, as well as Lake Hazen, North America&#39;s largest lake north of the Arctic Circle. Barbeau Peak, the highest mountain in Nunavut (2,616 m) is located in the British Empire Range on Ellesmere Island. The most northern mountain range in the world, the Challenger Mountains, is located in the northeast region of the island. The northern lobe of the island is called Grant Land.</p><br>
<p>In July 2007, a study noted the disappearance of habitat for waterfowl, invertebrates, and algae on Ellesmere Island. According to John P. Smol of Queen&#39;s University in Kingston, Ontario, and Marianne S. V. Douglas of the University of Alberta in Edmonton, warming conditions and evaporation have caused low water levels and changes in the chemistry of ponds and wetlands in the area. The researchers noted that "In the 1980s they often needed to wear hip waders to make their way to the ponds...while by 2006 the same areas were dry enough to burn."</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers and ice caps</h3><br>
<p>Large portions of Ellesmere Island are covered with glaciers and ice, with Manson Icefield (6,200 km&sup2;) and Sydkap (3,700 km&sup2;) in the south; Prince of Wales Icefield (20,700 km&sup2;) and Agassiz Ice Cap (21,500 km&sup2;) along the central-east side of the island, and the Northern Ellesmere icefields (24,400 km&sup2;).</p><br>
<p>The northwest coast of Ellesmere Island was covered by a massive, 500 km long ice shelf until the 20th century. The Ellesmere Ice Shelf shrank by 90 percent in the twentieth century due to warming trends in the Arctic, particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, a period when the largest ice islands (the 200 square mile T1 and the 300 square mile T2 ice islands) were formed leaving the separate Alfred Ernest, Ayles, Milne, Ward Hunt, and Markham Ice Shelves. A 1986 survey of Canadian ice shelves found that 48 km&sup2; or 3.3 km3 of ice calved from the Milne and Ayles ice shelves between 1959 and 1974. The Ward Hunt Ice Shelf, the largest remaining section of thick (&gt;10 m, &gt;30 ft) landfast sea ice along the northern coastline of Ellesmere Island, lost 600 km of ice in a massive calving in 1961–1962. It further decreased by 27% in thickness (13 m) between 1967 and 1999.</p><br>
<p>The breakup of the Ellesmere Ice Shelves has continued in the 21st century: the Ward Ice Shelf experienced a major breakup during summer 2002; the Ayles Ice Shelf calved entirely on August 13, 2005; the largest breakoff of the ice shelf in 25 years, it may pose a threat to the oil industry in the Beaufort Sea. The piece is 66 km&sup2;. In April 2008, it was discovered that the Ward Hunt shelf was fractured, with dozens of deep, multi-faceted cracks and in September 2008 the Markham shelf (50 km&sup2;) completely broke off to become floating sea-ice.</p><br>
<h3>Paleontology</h3><br>
<p>Schei and later Nathorst described the Paleocene-Eocene (ca. 55 Ma) fossil forest in the Stenkul Fiord sediments. The Stenkul Fiord site represents a series of deltaic swamp and floodplain forests. The trees stood for at least 400 years. Individual stumps and stems of &gt;1 m (&gt;3 ft) diameter were abundant, and are identified as Metasequoia and possibly Glyptostrobus. Well preserved Pliocene peats containing abundant vertebrate and plant macrofossils characteristic of a boreal forest have been reported from Strathcona Fiord.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, University of Chicago paleontologist Neil Shubin and Academy of Natural Sciences paleontologist Ted Daeschler reported the discovery of the fossil of a Paleozoic (ca. 375 Ma) fish, named Tiktaalik roseae, in the former stream beds of Ellesmere Island. The fossil exhibits many characteristics of fish, but also indicates a transitional creature that may be a predecessor of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including humans.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, Jason P. Downs and co-authors described the sarcopterygian Laccognathus embryi from specimens collected from the same locality that Tiktaalik was found.</p><br>
<h3>Insect ecology</h3><br>
<p>Ellesmere Island is noted as being the northernmost occurrence of eusocial insects; specifically, the bumblebee Bombus polaris. There is a second species of bumblebee occurring there, Bombus hyperboreus, which is a parasite in the nests of B. polaris.</p><br>
<p>While non-eusocial, the arctic woolly bear moth (G. groenlandica) can also be found at Ellesmere Island. While this species generally has a 10-year life cycle, its life is known to extend to up to 14 years at both the Alexandra Fiord lowland and Ellesmere Island.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>In 2016, the population of Ellesmere Island was recorded as 191. There are three settlements on Ellesmere Island, Alert (pop. 62), Eureka (permanent pop. 0, but home to a small temporary population), and Grise Fiord (pop. 129), Politically, it is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region.</p><br>
<p>Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert is the northernmost settlement in the world. With the end of the Cold War and the advent of new technologies allowing for remote interpretation of data, the overwintering population has been reduced to 62 civilians and military personnel as of 2016.</p><br>
<p>Eureka, which is the third northernmost settlement in the world, consists of three areas, "Eureka Aerodrome" which includes "Fort Eureka" (the quarters for military personnel maintaining the island&#39;s communications equipment), the Environment Canada Weather Station, and the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory (PEARL), formerly the Arctic Stratospheric Ozone (AStrO) Observatory. Eureka has the lowest average annual temperature and least precipitation of any weather station in Canada.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In the 2013 American superhero film Man of Steel, Ellesmere Island was the site of a combined US-Canadian scientific expedition to recover an ancient Kryptonian spaceship buried in the glacial ice pack.</p><br>
<p>The island was the location for the 2014 BBC programme Snow Wolf Family and Me.</p><br>
<p>It is the location of the NSA Camp Northern Light listening post in Z Nation.</p><br>
<p>Ellesmere Island is the subject of "The Long Exile: A True Story Of Deception And Survival Amongst The Inuit Of The Canadian Arctic" by M.J. McGrath and the setting for the Edie Kiglatuk mystery series by the same author.</p><br>
<p>Thebes  is a city in Boeotia, central Greece. It played an important role in Greek myths, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus and others. Archaeological excavations in and around Thebes have revealed a Mycenaean settlement and clay tablets written in the Linear B script, indicating the importance of the site in the Bronze Age.</p><br>
<p>Thebes was the largest city of the ancient region of Boeotia and was the leader of the Boeotian confederacy. It was a major rival of ancient Athens, and sided with the Persians during the 480 BC invasion under Xerxes. Theban forces under the command of Epaminondas ended the power of Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. The Sacred Band of Thebes (an elite military unit) famously fell at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC against Philip II and Alexander the Great. Prior to its destruction by Alexander in 335 BC, Thebes was a major force in Greek history, and was the most dominant city-state at the time of the Macedonian conquest of Greece. During the Byzantine period, the city was famous for its silks.</p><br>
<p>The modern city contains an Archaeological Museum, the remains of the Cadmea (Bronze Age and forward citadel), and scattered ancient remains. Modern Thebes is the largest town of the regional unit of Boeotia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Thebes is situated in a plain, between Lake Yliki (ancient Hylica) to the north, and the Cithaeron mountains, which divide Boeotia from Attica, to the south. Its elevation is 215 m above mean sea level. It is about 50 km northwest of Athens, and 100 km southeast of Lamia. Motorway 1 and the Athens–Thessaloniki railway connect Thebes with Athens and northern Greece. The municipality of Thebes covers an area of 830.112 km&sup2, the municipal unit of Thebes 321.015 km&sup2; and the community 143.889 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>In 2011, as a consequence of the Kallikratis reform, Thebes was merged with Plataies, Thisvi, and Vagia to form a larger municipality, which retained the name Thebes. The other three become units of the larger municipality.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Mythic record</h3><br>
<p>The record of the earliest days of Thebes was preserved among the Greeks in an abundant mass of legends that rival the myths of Troy in their wide ramification and the influence that they exerted on the literature of the classical age. Five main cycles of story may be distinguished:</p><br>
<p>The foundation of the citadel Cadmea by Cadmus, and the growth of the Spartoi or "Sown Men" (probably an aetiological myth designed to explain the origin of the Theban nobility which bore that name in historical times).</p><br>
<p>The building of a "seven-gated" wall by Amphion, and the cognate stories of Zethus, Antiope and Dirce.</p><br>
<p>The tale of Laius, whose misdeeds culminated in the tragedy of Oedipus and the wars of the "Seven Against Thebes", the Epigoni, and the downfall of his house; Laius&#39; pederastic rape of Chrysippus was held by some ancients to have been the first instance of homosexuality among mortals, and may have provided an etiology for the practice of pedagogic pederasty for which Thebes was famous. See Theban pederasty and Pederasty in ancient Greece for detailed discussion and background.</p><br>
<p>The immolation of Semele and the advent of Dionysus.</p><br>
<p>The exploits of Heracles.</p><br>
<p>The Greeks attributed the foundation of Thebes to Cadmus, a Phoenician king from Tyre (now in Lebanon) and the brother of Queen Europa. Cadmus was famous for teaching the Phoenician alphabet and building the Acropolis, which was named the Cadmeia in his honor and was an intellectual, spiritual, and cultural center.</p><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations in and around Thebes have revealed cist graves dated to Mycenaean times containing weapons, ivory, and tablets written in Linear B. Its attested name forms and relevant terms on tablets found locally or elsewhere include 𐀳𐀣𐀂, te-qa-i, understood to be read as *Tʰēgʷai̮s (Ancient Greek: Θήβαις, Thēbais, i.e. "at Thebes", Thebes in the dative-locative case), 𐀳𐀣𐀆, te-qa-de, for *Tʰēgʷasde (Θήβασδε, Thēbasde, i.e. "to Thebes"), and 𐀳𐀣𐀊, te-qa-ja, for *Tʰēgʷaja (Θηβαία, Thēbaia, i.e. "Theban woman").</p><br>
<p>It seems safe to infer that *Tʰēgʷai was one of the first Greek communities to be drawn together within a fortified city, and that it owed its importance in prehistoric days — as later — to its military strength. Deger-Jalkotzy claimed that the statue base from Kom el-Hetan in Amenhotep III&#39;s kingdom (LHIIIA:1) mentions a name similar to Thebes, spelled out quasi-syllabically in hieroglyphs as d-q-e-i-s, and considered to be one of four tj-n3-jj (Danaan?) kingdoms worthy of note (alongside Knossos and Mycenae). *Tʰēgʷai in LHIIIB lost contact with Egypt but gained it with "Miletus" (Hittite: Milawata) and "Cyprus" (Hittite: Alashija). In the late LHIIIB, according to Palaima, *Tʰēgʷai was able to pull resources from Lamos near Mount Helicon, and from Karystos and Amarynthos on the Greek side of the isle of Euboia.</p><br>
<p>As a fortified community, it attracted attention from the invading Dorians, and the fact of their eventual conquest of Thebes lies behind the stories of the successive legendary attacks on that city.</p><br>
<p>The central position and military security of the city naturally tended to raise it to a commanding position among the Boeotians, and from early days its inhabitants endeavoured to establish a complete supremacy over their kinsmen in the outlying towns. This centralizing policy is as much the cardinal fact of Theban history as the counteracting effort of the smaller towns to resist absorption forms the main chapter of the story of Boeotia. No details of the earlier history of Thebes have been preserved, except that it was governed by a land-holding aristocracy who safeguarded their integrity by rigid statutes about the ownership of property and its transmission over time.</p><br>
<h3>Archaic and classical periods</h3><br>
<p>As attested already in Homer&#39;s Iliad, Thebes was often called "Seven-Gated Thebes" (Θῆβαι ἑπτάπυλοι, Thebai heptapyloi) (Iliad, IV.406) to distinguish it from "Hundred-Gated Thebes" (Θῆβαι ἑκατόμπυλοι, Thebai hekatompyloi) in Egypt (Iliad, IX.383).</p><br>
<p>In the late 6th century BC, the Thebans were brought for the first time into hostile contact with the Athenians, who helped the small village of Plataea to maintain its independence against them, and in 506 BC repelled an inroad into Attica. The aversion to Athens best serves to explain the apparently unpatriotic attitude which Thebes displayed during the Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). Though a contingent of 400 was sent to Thermopylae and remained there with Leonidas before being defeated alongside the Spartans, the governing aristocracy soon after joined King Xerxes I of Persia with great readiness and fought zealously on his behalf at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. The victorious Greeks subsequently punished Thebes by depriving it of the presidency of the Boeotian League and an attempt by the Spartans to expel it from the Delphic amphictyony was only frustrated by the intercession of Athens.</p><br>
<p>In 457 BC Sparta, needing a counterpoise against Athens in central Greece, reversed her policy and reinstated Thebes as the dominant power in Boeotia. The great citadel of Cadmea served this purpose well by holding out as a base of resistance when the Athenians overran and occupied the rest of the country (457–447 BC). In the Peloponnesian War, the Thebans, embittered by the support that Athens gave to the smaller Boeotian towns, and especially to Plataea, which they vainly attempted to reduce in 431 BC, were firm allies of Sparta, which in turn helped them to besiege Plataea and allowed them to destroy the town after its capture in 427 BC. In 424 BC, at the head of the Boeotian levy, they inflicted a severe defeat on an invading force of Athenians at the Battle of Delium, and for the first time displayed the effects of that firm military organization that eventually raised them to predominant power in Greece.</p><br>
<p>After the downfall of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War, the Thebans, having learned that Sparta intended to protect the states that Thebes desired to annex, broke off the alliance. In 404 BC, they had urged the complete destruction of Athens; yet, in 403 BC, they secretly supported the restoration of its democracy in order to find in it a counterpoise against Sparta. A few years later, influenced perhaps in part by Persian gold, they formed the nucleus of the league against Sparta. At the Battle of Haliartus (395 BC) and the Battle of Coronea (394 BC), they again proved their rising military capacity by standing their ground against the Spartans. The result of the war was especially disastrous to Thebes, as the general settlement of 387 BC stipulated the complete autonomy of all Greek towns and so withdrew the other Boeotians from its political control. Its power was further curtailed in 382 BC, when a Spartan force occupied the citadel by a treacherous coup-de-main. Three years later, the Spartan garrison was expelled and a democratic constitution was set up in place of the traditional oligarchy. In the consequent wars with Sparta, the Theban army, trained and led by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, proved itself formidable (see also: Sacred Band of Thebes). Years of desultory fighting, in which Thebes established its control over all Boeotia, culminated in 371 BC in a remarkable victory over the Spartans at Leuctra. The winners were hailed throughout Greece as champions of the oppressed. They carried their arms into Peloponnesus and at the head of a large coalition, permanently crippled the power of Sparta, in part by freeing many helot slaves, the basis of the Spartan economy. Similar expeditions were sent to Thessaly and Macedon to regulate the affairs of those regions.</p><br>
<p>Ancient Thebes was the focus of BBC Radio 4 programme, In Our Time in November 2017.</p><br>
<h3>Decline and destruction</h3><br>
<p>However, the predominance of Thebes was short-lived, as the states that she protected refused to subject themselves permanently to her control. Thebes renewed rivalry with Athens, who had joined with them in 395 BC in fear of Sparta, but since 387 BC had endeavored to maintain the balance of power against her ally, prevented the formation of a Theban empire. With the death of Epaminondas at the Battle of Mantinea (362 BC), the city sank again to the position of a secondary power.</p><br>
<p>In a war with the neighboring state of Phocis (356–346 BC), it could not even maintain its predominance in central Greece, and by inviting Philip II of Macedon to crush the Phocians, it extended that monarchs power within dangerous proximity to its frontiers. A revulsion of feeling was completed in 338 BC by the orator Demosthenes, who persuaded Thebes to join Athens in a final attempt to bar Philips advance on Attica. The Theban contingent lost the decisive battle of Chaeronea and along with it every hope of reassuming control over Greece.</p><br>
<p>Philip was content to deprive Thebes of her dominion over Boeotia; but an unsuccessful revolt in 335 BC against his son Alexander the Great while he was campaigning in the north was punished by Alexander and his Greek allies with the destruction of the city, except, according to tradition, the house of the poet Pindar and the temples, its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, the Thebans themselves were sold into slavery.</p><br>
<p>Alexander spared only priests, leaders of the pro-Macedonian party and descendants of Pindar. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission. According to Plutarch, a special Athenian embassy, led by Phocion, an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to give up his demand for the exile of leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, most particularly Demosthenes.</p><br>
<h3>Hellenistic and Roman periods</h3><br>
<p>Ancient writings tend to treat Alexanders destruction of Thebes as excessive. Although Thebes had traditionally been antagonistic to whichever state led the Greek world, siding with the Persians when they invaded against the Athenian-Spartan alliance, siding with Sparta when Athens seemed omnipotent, and famously derailing the Spartan invasion of Persia by Agesilaus. Alexanders father Philip had been raised in Thebes, albeit as a hostage, and had learnt much of the art of war from Pelopidas. Philip had honoured this fact, always seeking alliances with the Boeotians, even in the lead-up to Chaeronea. Thebes was also revered as the most ancient of Greek cities, with a history of over 1,000 years. Plutarch relates that, during his later conquests, whenever Alexander came across a former Theban, he would attempt to redress his destruction of Thebes with favours to that individual.</p><br>
<h4>Restoration by Cassander</h4><br>
<p>Following Alexander the Greats death in 323 BC, Thebes was re-established in 315 BC In restoring Thebes, Cassander sought to rectify the perceived wrongs of Alexander - a gesture of generosity that earned Cassander much goodwill throughout Greece. In addition to currying favor with the Athenians and many of the Peloponnesian states, Cassanders restoration of Thebes provided him with loyal allies in the Theban exiles who returned to resettle the site.</p><br>
<p>Cassanders plan for rebuilding Thebes called for the various Greek city-states to provide skilled labor and manpower, and ultimately it proved successful. The Athenians, for example, rebuilt much of Thebes wall. Major contributions were sent from Megalopolis, Messene, and as far away as Sicily and Italy.</p><br>
<p>Despite the restoration, Thebes never regained its former prominence. The death of Cassander in 297 BC created a power vacuum throughout much of Greece, which contributed, in part, to Thebes&#39; besiegement by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 293 BC, and again after a revolt in 292 BC. This last siege was difficult and Demetrios was wounded, but finally he managed to break down the walls and to take the city once more, treating it mildly despite its fierce resistance. The city recovered its autonomy from Demetrios in 287 BC, and became allied with Lysimachus and the Aetolian League.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine period</h3><br>
<p>During the early Byzantine period it served as a place of refuge against foreign invaders. From the 10th century, Thebes became a centre of the new silk trade, its silk workshops boosted by imports of soaps and dyes from Athens. The growth of this trade in Thebes continued to such an extent that by the middle of the 12th century, the city had become the biggest producer of silks in the entire Byzantine empire, surpassing even the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The women of Thebes were famed for their skills at weaving. Theban silk was prized above all others during this period, both for its quality and its excellent reputation.</p><br>
<p>Though severely plundered by the Normans in 1146, Thebes quickly recovered its prosperity and continued to grow rapidly until its conquest by the Latins of the Fourth Crusade in 1204.</p><br>
<h3>Latin period</h3><br>
<p>Thanks to its wealth, the city was selected by the Frankish dynasty de la Roche as its capital, before it was permanently moved to Athens. After 1240, the Saint Omer family controlled the city jointly with the de la Roche dukes. The castle built by Nicholas II of Saint Omer on the Cadmea was one of the most beautiful of Frankish Greece. After its conquest in 1311 the city was used as a capital by the short-lived state of the Catalan Company.</p><br>
<p>In 1379, the Navarrese Company took the city with the aid of the Latin Archbishop of Thebes, Simon Atumano.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>Latin hegemony in Thebes lasted to 1458, when the Ottomans captured it. The Ottomans renamed Thebes "İstefe" and managed it until the War of Independence (nominally to 1832) except for a Venetian occupation between 1687 and 1699.</p><br>
<h3>Present day</h3><br>
<p>Today, Thebes is a bustling market town, known for its many products and wares. Until the 1980s, it had a flourishing agrarian production with some industrial complexes. However, during the late 1980s and 1990s the bulk of industry moved further south, closer to Athens. Tourism in the area is based mainly in Thebes and the surrounding villages, where a lot of places of interest related to antiquity exist such as the battlefield where the Battle of Plataea took place. The proximity to other, more famous travel destinations, like Athens and Chalkis, and the undeveloped archaeological sites have kept the tourist numbers low.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient</h3><br>
<p>Epaminondas (c. 418-362 BC) general and statesman - Commanded the Theban forces at the battles of Leuctra and Mantinea</p><br>
<p>Pelopidas (c. 420 - 365) general and statesman - Led rebellion against Sparta, commanded the Theban "Sacred band" at Leuctra</p><br>
<p>Aristides (4th century BC) painter</p><br>
<p>Nicomachus (4th century BC) painter</p><br>
<p>Crates of Thebes (c. 365-c. 285 BC) Cynic philosopher</p><br>
<p>Kleitomachos (3rd century BC) athlete</p><br>
<p>Pindar (c. 522–443 BC), poet</p><br>
<p>Luke the Evangelist was buried here</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>Haris Alexiou (born 1950), singer</p><br>
<p>Panagiotis Bratsiotis, theologian</p><br>
<p>Theodoros Vryzakis (c. 1814 – 1878) painter</p><br>
<p>Thebes , known to the ancient Egyptians as Waset, was an ancient Egyptian city located east of the Nile about 800 km south of the Mediterranean. Its ruins lie within the modern Egyptian city of Luxor. Thebes was the main city of the fourth Upper Egyptian nome  and was the capital of Egypt mainly during the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom. It was close to Nubia and the eastern desert, with its valuable mineral resources and trade routes. It was a cult center and the most venerated city of ancient Egypt during its heyday. The site of Thebes includes areas on both the eastern bank of the Nile, where the temples of Karnak and Luxor stand and the city proper was situated; and the western bank, where a necropolis of large private and royal cemeteries and funerary complexes can be found.</p><br>
<h2>Toponymy</h2><br>
<p>The Ancient Egyptians originally knew Thebes as Wose or Wase. A was was the scepter of the pharaohs, a long staff with an animals head and a forked base. From the end of the New Kingdom, Thebes was known in Egyptian as Niwt-&#39;Imn, the "City of Amun". Amun was the chief of the Theban Triad of gods whose other members were Mut and Khonsu. This name appears in the Bible as the "Nōʼ ʼĀmôn" (נא אמון) of the Book of Nahum and also as the "No" (נא) mentioned in Ezekiel and Jeremiah.</p><br>
<p>Thebes is the Latinized form of the Greek Thebai, the hellenized form of the Demotic Egyptian Ta-pe. This was the local name not for the city itself but for the Karnak temple complex on the northern east bank of the city. (Ta-opet in formal Egyptian.) As early as Homer&#39;s Iliad, the Greeks distinguished the Egyptian Thebes as Thebes of the Hundred Gates, (Θῆβαι ἑκατόμπυλοι, Thēbai hekatómpyloi) as opposed to the "Thebes of the Seven Gates" (Θῆβαι ἑπτάπυλοι, Thēbai heptapyloi) in Boeotia, Greece.</p><br>
<p>In the interpretatio graeca, Amun was seen as a form of Zeus. The name was therefore translated into Greek as Diospolis, the "City of Zeus". To distinguish it from the numerous other cities by this name, it was known as the Great Diospolis (μεγάλη Διόσπολις, megálē Dióspolis; Diospolis Magna). The Greek names came into wider use after the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, when the country came to be ruled by the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty.</p><br>
<h2>Characteristics</h2><br>
<h3>Geography</h3><br>
<p>Thebes was located along the banks of the Nile River in the middle part of Upper Egypt about 800 km from the Delta. It was built largely on the alluvial plains of the Nile Valley which follows a great bend of the Nile. As a natural consequence, the city was laid in a northeast-southwest axis parallel to the contemporary river channel. Thebes had an area of 93 km (36 sq mi) which included parts of the Theban Hills in the west that culminates at the sacred 420-meter (1,378-foot) al-Qurn. In the east lies the mountainous Eastern Desert with its wadis draining into the valley. Significant of these wadis is Wadi Hammamat near Thebes. It was used as an overland trade route going to the Red Sea coast.</p><br>
<p>In the fourth Upper Egyptian nome, Thebes was found to have neighboring towns such as Per-Hathor, Madu, Djerty, Iuny, Sumenu and Imiotru.</p><br>
<h3>Demographics</h3><br>
<p>According to George Modelski, Thebes had about 40,000 inhabitants in 2000 BC (compared to 60,000 in Memphis, the largest city of the world at the time). By 1800 BC, the population of Memphis was down to about 30,000, making Thebes the largest city in Egypt at the time. Historian Ian Morris estimated that by 1500 BC, Thebes may have grown to be the largest city in the world, with a population of about 75,000, a position which it held until about 900 BC, when it was surpassed by Nimrud (among others).</p><br>
<h3>Economy</h3><br>
<p>The archaeological remains of Thebes offer a striking testimony to Egyptian civilization at its height. The Greek poet Homer extolled the wealth of Thebes in the Iliad, Book 9 (c. 8th Century BC): "... in Egyptian Thebes the heaps of precious ingots gleam, the hundred-gated Thebes."</p><br>
<h3>Culture</h3><br>
<p>More than sixty annual festivals were celebrated in Thebes. The major festivals among these according to the Edfu Geographical Text were: the Beautiful Feast of Opet, the Khoiak (Festival), Festival of I Shemu, and Festival of II Shemu. Another popular festivity was the halloween-like Beautiful Festival of the Valley.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Old Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>Thebes was inhabited from around 3200 BC. It was the eponymous capital of Waset, the fourth Upper Egyptian nome. At this time it was still a small trading post while Memphis served as the royal residence of Old Kingdom pharaohs. Although no buildings survive in Thebes older than the portions of the Karnak temple complex, which may date from the Middle Kingdom, the lower part of a statue of Pharaoh Nyuserre of the 5th Dynasty has been found in Karnak. Another statue which was dedicated by the 12th Dynasty king Senusret may have been usurped and re-used, since the statue bears a cartouche of Nyuserre on its belt. Since seven rulers of the 4th to 6th Dynasties appear on the Karnak king list, perhaps at the least there was a temple in the Theban area which dated to the Old Kingdom.</p><br>
<h3>First Intermediate Period</h3><br>
<p>By 2160 BC, a new line of pharaohs (the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties) consolidated Lower Egypt and northern parts of Upper Egypt from their capital in Herakleopolis Magna. A rival line (the Eleventh Dynasty) based at Thebes ruled the remaining part of Upper Egypt. The Theban rulers were apparently descendants of the prince of Thebes, Intef the Elder. His probable grandson Intef I was the first of the family to claim in life a partial pharaonic titulary, though his power did not extend much further than the general Theban region.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>Finally by c. 2050 BC, Intef III&#39;s son Mentuhotep II (meaning "Montu is satisfied"), took the Herakleopolitans by force and reunited Egypt once again under one ruler, thereby starting the period now known as the Middle Kingdom. Mentuhotep II ruled for 51 years and built the first mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri, which most likely served as the inspiration for the later and larger temple built next to it by Hatshepsut in the 18th Dynasty. After these events, the 11th Dynasty was short-lived, as less than 20 years had elapsed between the death of Mentuhotep II and that of Mentuhotep IV, in mysterious circumstances.</p><br>
<p>During the 12th Dynasty, Amenemhat I moved the seat of power North to Itjtawy. Thebes continued to thrive as a religious center as the local god Amun was increasingly becoming prominent throughout Egypt. The oldest remains of a temple dedicated to Amun date to the reign of Senusret I. Thebes was already, in the Middle Kingdom a town of considerable size. Excavations around the Karnak temple show that the Middle Kingdom town had the layout with a grid pattern. The city was at least one kilometer long and 50 hectares in area. Remains of two palatial buildings were also detected.</p><br>
<p>Starting in the later part of the 12th Dynasty, a group of Canaanite people began settling in the eastern Nile Delta. They eventually founded the 14th Dynasty at Avaris in c. 1805 BC or c. 1710 BC. By doing so, the Asiatics established hegemony over the majority of the Delta region, subtracting these territories from the influence of the 13th Dynasty that had meanwhile succeeded the 12th.</p><br>
<h3>Second Intermediate Period</h3><br>
<p>A second wave of Asiatics called Hyksos (from Heqa-khasut, "rulers of foreign lands" as Egyptians called their leaders) immigrated into Egypt and overran the Canaanite center of power at Avaris, starting the 15th Dynasty there. The Hyksos kings gained the upper hand over Lower Egypt early into the Second Intermediate Period (1657-1549 BC). When the Hyksos took Memphis during or shortly after Merneferre Ay&#39;s reign (c. 1700 BC), the rulers of the 13th Dynasty fled south to Thebes, which was restored as capital.</p><br>
<p>Theban princes (now known as the 16th Dynasty) firmly stood over their immediate region as the Hyksos advanced from the Delta southwards to Middle Egypt. The Thebans resisted the Hyksos further advance by forming an agreement for a peaceful concurrent rule between them. The Hyksos were able sail upstream past Thebes and some Nile cataracts to trade with the Nubians and the Thebans brought their herds to the Delta without adversaries. The status quo continued until Hyksos ruler Apophis (15th Dynasty) insulted Seqenenre Tao (17th Dynasty) of Thebes. Soon the armies of Thebes marched on the Hyksos-ruled lands. Tao died in battle and his son Kamose took charge of the campaign. After Kamoses death, his brother Ahmose I continued till he captured Avaris, the Hyksos capital. Ahmose I drove the Hyksos out of Egypt and the Levant and reclaimed the lands formerly ruled by them.</p><br>
<h3>New Kingdom and height of Thebes</h3><br>
<p>Ahmose I founded a new age for a unified Egypt with Thebes as its capital. The city remained as capital during most of the 18th Dynasty (New Kingdom). It also became the center for a newly established professional civil service, where there was a greater demand for scribes and the literate as the royal archives began to fill with accounts and reports. At the city the favored few of</p><br>
<p>Nubia were reeducated with Egyptian culture, to serve as administrators of the colony.</p><br>
<p>With Egypt stabilized again, religion and religious centers flourished and none more so than Thebes. For instance, Amenhotep III, poured much of his vast wealth from foreign tribute into the temples of Amun. The Theban god Amun became a principal state deity and every building project sought to outdo the last in proclaiming the glory of Amun and the pharaohs themselves. Thutmose I (reigned 1506-1493 BC) began the first great expansion of the Karnak temple. After this, colossal enlargements of the temple became the norm throughout the New Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>Queen Hatshepsut (reigned 1479-1458 BC) made the Theban economy flourish by renewing trade networks, primarily the Red Sea trade between Thebes Red Sea port of Al-Qusayr, Elat and the land of Punt. Her successor Thutmose III brought to Thebes a great deal of his war booty that originated from as far as Mittani. The 18th Dynasty reached its peak during his son Amenhotep IIIs reign (1388–1350 BC). Aside from embellishing the temples of Amun, Amenhotep increased construction in Thebes to unprecedented levels. On the west bank, he built the enormous mortuary temple and the equally massive Malkata palace-city which fronted a 364-hectare artificial lake. In the city proper he built the Luxor temple and the Avenue of the Sphinxes leading to Karnak.</p><br>
<p>For a brief period in the reign of Amenhotep III&#39;s son Akhenaten (1351–1334 BC), Thebes fell on evil times; the city was abandoned by the court, and the worship of Amun was proscribed. The capital was moved to the new city of Amarna (Akhetaten), midway between Thebes and Memphis. After his death, his son Tutankhamun made a return to Memphis, but renewed interest in building projects at Thebes which produced even more glorious temples and shrines.</p><br>
<p>With the 19th Dynasty the seat of government moved to the Delta. Thebes maintained its revenues and prestige through the reigns of Seti I (1290–1279 BC) and Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC), who still resided for part of every year in Thebes. Ramesses II carried out extensive building projects in the city such as statues and obelisks, the third enclosure wall of Karnak temple, additions to the Luxor temple, and the Ramesseum, his grand mortuary temple. The constructions were bankrolled by the large granaries (built around the Ramesseum) which concentrated the taxes collected from Upper Egypt; and by the gold from expeditions to Nubia and the Eastern Desert. Under Ramesses&#39; long 66-year reign, Egypt and Thebes reached an overwhelming state of prosperity which equaled or even surpassed the earlier peak under Amenhotep III.</p><br>
<p>The city continued to be well kept in the early 20th Dynasty. The Great Harris Papyrus states that Ramesses III (reigned 1187–56) donated 86,486 slaves and vast estates to the temples of Amun. Ramesses III received tributes from all subject peoples including the Sea Peoples and Meshwesh Libyans. However, the whole of Egypt was experiencing financial problems, exemplified in the events at Thebes&#39; village of Deir el-Medina. In the 25th year of his reign, workers in Deir el-Medina began striking for pay and there arose a general unrest of all social classes. Consequently, an unsuccessful harem revolt led to the deaths of many, including Theban officials and women.</p><br>
<p>Under the later Ramessids, Thebes began to decline; the government fell into grave economic difficulties. During the reign of Ramesses IX (1129–1111 BC), about 1114 BC, a series of investigations into the plundering of royal tombs in the necropolis of western Thebes uncovered proof of corruption in high places, following an accusation made by the mayor of the east bank against his colleague on the west. The plundered royal mummies were moved from place to place and at last deposited by the priests of Amun in a tomb-shaft in Deir el-Bahri and in the tomb of Amenhotep II. (The finding of these two hiding places in 1881 and 1898, respectively, was one of the great events of modern archaeological discovery.) Such maladministration in Thebes led to unrest.</p><br>
<h3>Third Intermediate Period</h3><br>
<p>Control of local affairs tended to come more and more into the hands of the High Priests of Amun, so that during the Third Intermediate Period, the High Priest of Amun exerted absolute power over the South, a counterbalance to the 21st and 22nd Dynasty kings who ruled from the Delta. Intermarriage and adoption strengthened the ties between them, daughters of the Tanite kings being installed as God’s Wife of Amun at Thebes, where they wielded greater power. Theban political influence receded only in the Late Period.</p><br>
<p>By around 750 BC, the Kushites (Nubians) were growing their influence over Thebes and Upper Egypt. Kush, the former colony of Egypt became an empire in itself. In 721 BC, King Shabaka of the Kushites defeated the combined forces of Osorkon IV (22nd Dynasty), Peftjauawybast (23rd Dynasty) Bakenranef (24th Dynasty) and reunified Egypt yet again. His reign saw a significant amount of building work undertaken throughout Egypt, especially at the city of Thebes, which he made the capital of his kingdom. In Karnak he erected a pink granite statue of himself wearing the Pschent (the double crown of Egypt). Taharqa accomplished many notable projects at Thebes (i.e. the Kiosk in Karnak) and Nubia before the Assyrians started to wage war against Egypt.</p><br>
<h3>Late Period</h3><br>
<p>In 667 BC, attacked by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal&#39;s army, Taharqa abandoned Lower Egypt and fled to Thebes. After his death three years later his nephew (or cousin) Tantamani seized Thebes, invaded Lower Egypt and laid siege to Memphis, but abandoned his attempts to conquer the country in 663 BC and retreated southwards. The Assyrians pursued him and took Thebes, whose name was added to a long list of cities plundered and destroyed by the Assyrians, as Ashurbanipal wrote:</p><br>
<p>"This city, the whole of it, I conquered it with the help of Ashur and Ishtar. Silver, gold, precious stones, all the wealth of the palace, rich cloth, precious linen, great horses, supervising men and women, two obelisks of splendid electrum, weighing 2,500 talents, the doors of temples I tore from their bases and carried them off to Assyria. With this weighty booty I left Thebes. Against Egypt and Kush I have lifted my spear and shown my power. With full hands I have returned to Nineveh, in good health."</p><br>
<p>Thebes never regained its former political significance, but it remained an important religious centre. Assyrians installed Psamtik I (664-610 BC), who ascended to Thebes in 656 BC and brought about the adoption of his own daughter, Nitocris I, as heiress to God&#39;s Wife of Amun there. In 525 BC, Persian Cambyses II invaded Egypt and became pharaoh, subordinating the kingdom as a satrapy to the greater Achaemenid Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Graeco-Roman Period</h3><br>
<p>The good relationship of the Thebans with the central power in the North ended when the native Egyptian pharaohs were finally replaced by Greeks, led by Alexander the Great. He visited Thebes during a celebration of the Opet Festival. In spite of his welcoming visit, Thebes became a center for dissent. Towards the end of the third century BC, Hugronaphor (Horwennefer), possibly of Nubian origin, led a revolt against the Ptolemies in Upper Egypt. His successor, Ankhmakis, held large parts of Upper Egypt until 185 BC. This revolt was supported by the Theban priesthood. After the suppression of the revolt in 185 BC, Ptolemy V, in need of the support of the priesthood, forgave them.</p><br>
<p>Half a century later the Thebans rose again, elevating a certain Harsiesi to the throne in 132 BC. Harsiesi, having helped himself to the funds of the royal bank at Thebes, fled the following year. In 91 BC, another revolt broke out. In the following years, Thebes was subdued, and the city turned into rubble.</p><br>
<p>During the Roman occupation (30 BC-349 AD), the remaining communities clustered around the pylon of the Luxor temple. Thebes became part of the Roman province of Thebais, which later split into Thebais Superior, centered at the city, and Thebais Inferior, centered at Ptolemais Hermiou. A Roman legion was headquartered in Luxor temple at the time of Roman campaigns in Nubia. Building did not come to an abrupt stop, but the city continued to decline. In the first century AD, Strabo described Thebes as having been relegated to a mere village.</p><br>
<h2>Major sites</h2><br>
<p>Eastern Thebes:</p><br>
<p>Ancient built-up area</p><br>
<p>Great Temple of Amun at Karnak (Ancient Egyptian Ta-opet). Still the second largest religious building ever built, it is the main house of worship for Amun, Thebes&#39; patron deity, and the residence of the powerful Amun priesthood. What differentiated it from the many temples of Egypt is the length of time it was built over (more than 2,000 years, starting in the Middle Kingdom). The main features of this temple are its ten large pylons, the Great Hypostyle Hall, a sacred lake, sub-temples, numerous shrines and multiple obelisks. It was the most important temple for a majority of Ancient Egyptian history.</p><br>
<p>Luxor Temple (Ipet resyt). Unlike the other temples in Thebes, it is not dedicated to a cult god or a deified version of the king in death. Instead, it is dedicated to the rejuvenation of kingship; it may have been where many of the pharaohs of Egypt were crowned. It is a centerpiece of the "Opet Festival", where the sacred barque of the Theban Triad travels from Karnak to Luxor temple highlighting the godly significance of the pharaoh&#39;s re-coronation.</p><br>
<p>Temple of Khonsu</p><br>
<p>Precinct of Mut</p><br>
<p>Precinct of Montu</p><br>
<p>Avenue of the Sphinxes</p><br>
<p>Western Thebes:</p><br>
<p>Village of Deir el-Medina</p><br>
<p>Malkata palace complex</p><br>
<p>Ramesseum</p><br>
<p>Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III</p><br>
<p>Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut</p><br>
<p>Mortuary Temple of Seti I</p><br>
<p>Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III</p><br>
<p>Valley of the Kings</p><br>
<p>Valley of the Queens</p><br>
<p>Tombs of the Nobles</p><br>
<h2>Cultural heritage</h2><br>
<p>In 1979, the ruins of ancient Thebes were classified by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage site. The two great temples—Luxor Temple and Karnak—and the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens are among the great achievements of ancient Egypt.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC  was amongst the earliest electronic general-purpose computers made. It was Turing-complete, digital and able to solve "a large class of numerical problems" through reprogramming.</p><br>
<p>Although ENIAC was designed and primarily used to calculate artillery firing tables for the United States Army&#39;s Ballistic Research Laboratory, its first programs included a study of the feasibility of the thermonuclear weapon.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC was formally dedicated at the University of Pennsylvania on February 15, 1946 and was heralded as a "Giant Brain" by the press. It had a speed on the order of one thousand times faster than that of electro-mechanical machines; this computational power, coupled with general-purpose programmability, excited scientists and industrialists alike. This combination of speed and programmability allowed for thousands more calculations for problems, as ENIAC calculated a trajectory that took a human 20 hours in 30 seconds (a 2400× increase in speed).</p><br>
<h2>Development and design</h2><br>
<p>ENIACs design and construction was financed by the United States Army, Ordnance Corps, Research and Development Command, led by Major General Gladeon M. Barnes. The total cost was about $487,000. The construction contract was signed on June 5, 1943; work on the computer began in secret at the University of Pennsylvanias Moore School of Electrical Engineering the following month, under the code name "Project PX", with John Grist Brainerd as principal investigator. Herman H. Goldstine persuaded the Army to fund the project which put him in charge to oversee it for them.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC was designed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania, USA The team of design engineers assisting the development included Robert F. Shaw (function tables), Jeffrey Chuan Chu (divider/square-rooter), Thomas Kite Sharpless (master programmer), Frank Mural (master programmer), Arthur Burks (multiplier), Harry Huskey (reader/printer) and Jack Davis (accumulators). In 1946, the researchers resigned from the University of Pennsylvania and formed the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC was a modular computer, composed of individual panels to perform different functions. Twenty of these modules were accumulators which could not only add and subtract, but hold a ten-digit decimal number in memory. Numbers were passed between these units across several general-purpose buses (or trays, as they were called). In order to achieve its high speed, the panels had to send and receive numbers, compute, save the answer and trigger the next operation, all without any moving parts. Key to its versatility was the ability to branch; it could trigger different operations, depending on the sign of a computed result.</p><br>
<h3>Components</h3><br>
<p>By the end of its operation in 1956, ENIAC contained 20,000 vacuum tubes, 7200 crystal diodes, 1500 relays, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors and approximately 5,000,000 hand-soldered joints. It weighed more than 30 short tons (27 t), was roughly 2.4 m × 0.9 m × 30 m (8 × 3 × 100 feet) in size, occupied 167 m (1,800 ft) and consumed 150 kW of electricity. This power requirement led to the rumor that whenever the computer was switched on, lights in Philadelphia dimmed. Input was possible from an IBM card reader and an IBM card punch was used for output. These cards could be used to produce printed output offline using an IBM accounting machine, such as the IBM 405. While ENIAC had no system to store memory in its inception, these punch cards could be used for external memory storage. In 1953, a 100-word magnetic-core memory built by the Burroughs Corporation was added to ENIAC.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC used ten-position ring counters to store digits; each digit required 36 vacuum tubes, 10 of which were the dual triodes making up the flip-flops of the ring counter. Arithmetic was performed by "counting" pulses with the ring counters and generating carry pulses if the counter "wrapped around", the idea being to electronically emulate the operation of the digit wheels of a mechanical adding machine.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC had 20 ten-digit signed accumulators, which used ten&#39;s complement representation and could perform 5000 simple addition or subtraction operations between any of them and a source (e.g., another accumulator or a constant transmitter) every second. It was possible to connect several accumulators to run simultaneously, so the peak speed of operation was potentially much higher, due to parallel operation.</p><br>
<p>It was possible to wire the carry of one accumulator into another accumulator to perform double precision arithmetic, but the accumulator carry circuit timing prevented the wiring of 3+ for even higher precision. ENIAC used 4 of the accumulators (controlled by a special multiplier unit) to perform up to 385 multiplication operations/second; 5 of the accumulators were controlled by a special divider/square-rooter unit to perform up to 40 division operations/second or 3 square root operations/second.</p><br>
<p>The other 9 units in ENIAC were the Initiating Unit (started and stopped the machine), the Cycling Unit (used for synchronizing the other units), the Master Programmer (controlled "loop" sequencing), the Reader (controlled an IBM punch-card reader), the Printer (controlled an IBM card punch), the Constant Transmitter and 3 function tables.</p><br>
<h3>Operation times</h3><br>
<p>The references by Rojas and Hashagen (or Wilkes) give more details about the times for operations, which differ somewhat from those stated above.</p><br>
<p>The basic machine cycle was 200 microseconds (20 cycles of the 100 kHz clock in the cycling unit), or 5,000 cycles per second for operations on the 10-digit numbers. In one of these cycles, ENIAC could write a number to a register, read a number from a register, or add/subtract two numbers.</p><br>
<p>A multiplication of a 10-digit number by a d-digit number (for d up to 10) took d+4 cycles, so a 10- by 10-digit multiplication took 14 cycles, or 2800 microseconds—a rate of 357 per second. If one of the numbers had fewer than 10 digits, the operation was faster.</p><br>
<p>Division and square roots took 13(d+1) cycles, where d is the number of digits in the result (quotient or square root). So a division or square root took up to 143 cycles, or 28,600 microseconds—a rate of 35 per second. (Wilkes 1956:20 states that a division with a 10 digit quotient required 6 milliseconds.) If the result had fewer than ten digits, it was obtained faster.</p><br>
<h3>Reliability</h3><br>
<p>ENIAC used common octal-base radio tubes of the day; the decimal accumulators were made of 6SN7 flip-flops, while 6L7s, 6SJ7s, 6SA7s and 6AC7s were used in logic functions. Numerous 6L6s and 6V6s served as line drivers to drive pulses through cables between rack assemblies.</p><br>
<p>Several tubes burned out almost every day, leaving ENIAC nonfunctional about half the time. Special high-reliability tubes were not available until 1948. Most of these failures, however, occurred during the warm-up and cool-down periods, when the tube heaters and cathodes were under the most thermal stress. Engineers reduced ENIAC&#39;s tube failures to the more acceptable rate of one tube every two days. According to a 1989 interview with Eckert, "We had a tube fail about every two days and we could locate the problem within 15 minutes."</p><br>
<p>In 1954, the longest continuous period of operation without a failure was 116 hours—close to five days.</p><br>
<h2>Programming</h2><br>
<p>ENIAC could be programmed to perform complex sequences of operations, including loops, branches, and subroutines. However, instead of the stored program computers that exist today, ENIAC was just a large collection of arithmetic machines, which had programs hard coded into the machines with function tables that each contained 1200 ten way switches. The task of taking a problem and mapping it onto the machine was complex, and usually took weeks. Due to the complexity of mapping programs onto the machine, programs were only changed after huge numbers of tests of the current program. After the program was figured out on paper, the process of getting the program into ENIAC by manipulating its switches and cables could take days. This was followed by a period of verification and debugging, aided by the ability to execute the program step by step. A programming tutorial for the modulo function using an ENIAC simulator gives an impression of what a program on the ENIAC looked like.</p><br>
<p>ENIACs six primary programmers, Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman, not only determined how to input ENIAC programs, but also developed an understanding of ENIACs inner workings. The programmers debugged problems by crawling inside the massive structure to find bad joints and bad tubes.</p><br>
<h3>Programmers</h3><br>
<p>Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Meltzer, Fran Bilas, and Ruth Lichterman were the first programmers of the ENIAC, though their work was not widely recognized for over 50 years. Historians had at first mistaken them for "Refrigerator Ladies", i.e. models posing in front of the machine. Most of the women did not receive recognition for their work on the ENIAC in their lifetimes. 50 years after the invention of the ENIAC most of the female programmers were not invited to the 50th anniversary event.</p><br>
<p>These early programmers were drawn from a group of about two hundred female computers who studied at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. One of the few technical job categories available to women was computing the results of mathematical formulas for science and engineering, usually with a mechanical calculator. Betty Holberton (née Snyder) continued on to invent the first sorting algorithm and help design the first commercial electronic computers, the UNIVAC and the BINAC, alongside Jean Jennings.</p><br>
<p>Herman Goldstine selected the programmers, then called "operators", from the computers who had been calculating ballistics tables with desk calculators and a differential analyzer prior to and during the development of ENIAC. Under Herman and Adele Goldstines direction, the programmers studied ENIACs blueprints and physical structure to determine how to manipulate its switches and cables, rather than learning a programming language. Though contemporaries considered programming a clerical task and did not publicly recognize the programmers&#39; impact on the successful operation and announcement of ENIAC, McNulty, Jennings, Snyder, Wescoff, Bilas, and Lichterman have since been recognized for their contributions to computing.</p><br>
<p>Following the initial six programmers, an expanded team of a hundred scientists was recruited to continue work on the ENIAC. Among these were several women, including Gloria Ruth Gordon. Adele Goldstine wrote the original technical description of the ENIAC.</p><br>
<h3>Role in the hydrogen bomb</h3><br>
<p>Although the Ballistic Research Laboratory was the sponsor of ENIAC, one year into this three-year project John von Neumann, a mathematician working on the hydrogen bomb at Los Alamos National Laboratory, became aware of this computer. Los Alamos subsequently became so involved with ENIAC that the first test problem run consisted of computations for the hydrogen bomb, not artillery tables. The input/output for this test was one million cards.</p><br>
<h3>Role in development of the Monte Carlo methods</h3><br>
<p>Related to ENIAC&#39;s role in the hydrogen bomb was its role in the Monte Carlo method becoming popular. Scientists involved in the original nuclear bomb development used massive groups of people doing huge numbers of calculations ("computers" in the terminology of the time) to investigate the distance that neutrons would likely travel through various materials. John von Neumann and Stanislaw Ulam realized the speed of ENIAC would allow these calculations to be done much more quickly. The success of this project showed the value of Monte Carlo methods in science.</p><br>
<h2>Later developments</h2><br>
<p>The completed machine was announced to the public the evening of February 14, 1946 and formally dedicated the next day at the University of Pennsylvania. The original contract amount was $61,700; the final cost was almost $500,000 (approximately $ today). It was formally accepted by the USA Army Ordnance Corps in July 1946. ENIAC was shut down on November 9, 1946 for a refurbishment and a memory upgrade, and was transferred to Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland in 1947. There, on July 29, 1947, it was turned on and was in continuous operation until 11:45 p.m. on October 2, 1955.</p><br>
<h3>Role in the development of the EDVAC</h3><br>
<p>A few months after ENIAC&#39;s unveiling in the summer of 1946, as part of "an extraordinary effort to jump-start research in the field", the Pentagon invited "the top people in electronics and mathematics from the United States and Great Britain" to a series of forty-eight lectures given in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; all together called The Theory and Techniques for Design of Digital Computers—more often named the Moore School Lectures. Half of these lectures were given by the inventors of ENIAC.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC was a one-of-a-kind design and was never repeated. The freeze on design in 1943 meant that the computer design would lack some innovations that soon became well-developed, notably the ability to store a program. Eckert and Mauchly started work on a new design, to be later called the EDVAC, which would be both simpler and more powerful. In particular, in 1944 Eckert wrote his description of a memory unit (the mercury delay line) which would hold both the data and the program. John von Neumann, who was consulting for the Moore School on the EDVAC, sat in on the Moore School meetings at which the stored program concept was elaborated. Von Neumann wrote up an incomplete set of notes (First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC) which were intended to be used as an internal memorandum—describing, elaborating, and couching in formal logical language the ideas developed in the meetings. ENIAC administrator and security officer Herman Goldstine distributed copies of this First Draft to a number of government and educational institutions, spurring widespread interest in the construction of a new generation of electronic computing machines, including Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) at Cambridge University, England and SEAC at the USA Bureau of Standards.</p><br>
<h3>Improvements</h3><br>
<p>A number of improvements were made to ENIAC after 1948, including a primitive read-only stored programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program ROM, an idea included in the ENIAC patent and proposed independently by Richard Clippinger of BRL. Clippinger consulted with von Neumann on what instruction set to implement. Clippinger had thought of a 3-address architecture while von Neumann proposed a 1-address architecture because it was simpler to implement. Three digits of one accumulator (6) were used as the program counter, another accumulator (15) was used as the main accumulator, a third accumulator (8) was used as the address pointer for reading data from the function tables, and most of the other accumulators (1–5, 7, 9–14, 17–19) were used for data memory.</p><br>
<p>The programming of the stored program for ENIAC was done by Betty Jennings, Clippinger and Adele Goldstine. It was first demonstrated as a stored-program computer on September 16, 1948, running a program by Adele Goldstine for John von Neumann. This modification reduced the speed of ENIAC by a factor of six and eliminated the ability of parallel computation, but as it also reduced the reprogramming time to hours instead of days, it was considered well worth the loss of performance. Also analysis had shown that due to differences between the electronic speed of computation and the electromechanical speed of input/output, almost any real-world problem was completely I/O bound, even without making use of the original machine&#39;s parallelism. Most computations would still be I/O bound, even after the speed reduction imposed by this modification.</p><br>
<p>Early in 1952, a high-speed shifter was added, which improved the speed for shifting by a factor of five. In July 1953, a 100-word expansion core memory was added to the system, using binary coded decimal, excess-3 number representation. To support this expansion memory, ENIAC was equipped with a new Function Table selector, a memory address selector, pulse-shaping circuits, and three new orders were added to the programming mechanism.</p><br>
<h2>Comparison with other early computers</h2><br>
<p>Mechanical and electrical computing machines have been around since the 19th century, but the 1930s and 1940s are considered the beginning of the modern computer era.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC was, like the Z3 and Harvard Mark I, able to run an arbitrary sequence of mathematical operations, but did not read them from a tape. Like the Colossus, it was programmed by plugboard and switches. ENIAC combined full, Turing complete programmability with electronic speed. The Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC), ENIAC, and Colossus all used thermionic valves (vacuum tubes). ENIAC&#39;s registers performed decimal arithmetic, rather than binary arithmetic like the Z3, the ABC and Colossus.</p><br>
<p>Like the Colossus, ENIAC required rewiring to reprogram until September 1948. Three months earlier, in June 1948, the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM) ran its first program and earned the distinction of first stored-program computer. Though the idea of a stored-program computer with combined memory for program and data was conceived during the development of ENIAC, it was not initially implemented in ENIAC because World War II priorities required the machine to be completed quickly, and ENIAC&#39;s 20 storage locations would be too small to hold data and programs.</p><br>
<h3>Public knowledge</h3><br>
<p>The Z3 and Colossus were developed independently of each other, and of the ABC and ENIAC during World War II. The Z3 was destroyed by the Allied bombing raids of Berlin in 1943. The ten Colossus machines were part of the UK&#39;s war effort. Their existence only became generally known in the 1970s, though knowledge of their capabilities remained among their UK staff and invited Americans. All but two of the machines were dismantled in 1945; the remaining two were used in GCHQ until the 1960s. Work on the ABC at Iowa State University was stopped in 1942 after John Atanasoff was called to Washington, D.C., to do physics research for the USA Navy, and it was subsequently dismantled.</p><br>
<p>ENIAC, by contrast, was put through its paces for the press in 1946, "and captured the world&#39;s imagination". Older histories of computing may therefore not be comprehensive in their coverage and analysis of this period. As the Colossus was used to decrypt Russian messages up until the 1960s, it was kept confidential for almost 40 years, only becoming public knowledge in the late 1970s.</p><br>
<h3>Patent</h3><br>
<p>For a variety of reasons (including Mauchly&#39;s June 1941 examination of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, prototyped in 1939 by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry), for ENIAC, applied for in 1947 and granted in 1964, was voided by the 1973 decision of the landmark federal court case Honeywell v. Sperry Rand, putting the invention of the electronic digital computer in the public domain and providing legal recognition to Atanasoff as the inventor of the first electronic digital computer.</p><br>
<h2>Parts on display</h2><br>
<p>Pieces of ENIAC are held by the following institutions:</p><br>
<p>The School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of Pennsylvania has four of the original forty panels and one of the three function tables of ENIAC (on loan from the Smithsonian).</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian has five panels in the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<p>The Science Museum in London has a receiver unit on display.</p><br>
<p>The Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California has three panels and a function table on display (on loan from the Smithsonian Institution).</p><br>
<p>The University of Michigan in Ann Arbor has four panels, salvaged by Arthur Burks.</p><br>
<p>The United States Army Ordnance Museum at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, where ENIAC was used, has one of the function tables.</p><br>
<p>The USA Army Field Artillery Museum in Fort Sill, as of October 2014, had obtained seven panels of ENIAC that were previously housed by The Perot Group in Plano, Texas.</p><br>
<p>The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, has one of the data entry terminals from the ENIAC.</p><br>
<p>The in Paderborn, Germany, has three panels (on loan from the Smithsonian Institution)</p><br>
<h2>Recognition</h2><br>
<p>ENIAC was named an IEEE Milestone in 1987.</p><br>
<p>In 1996, in honor of the ENIAC&#39;s 50th anniversary, The University of Pennsylvania sponsored a project named, "ENIAC-on-a-Chip", where a very small silicon computer chip measuring 7.44 mm by 5.29 mm was built with the same functionality as ENIAC. Although this 20 MHz chip was many times faster than ENIAC, it had but a fraction of the speed of its contemporary microprocessors in the late 1990s.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the six women who did most of the programming of ENIAC were inducted into the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame. The role of the ENIAC programmers is treated in a 2010 documentary film titled Top Secret Rosies: The Female "Computers" of WWII by LeAnn Erickson. A 2014 documentary short, The Computers by Kate McMahon, tells of the story of the six programmers; this was the result of 20 years&#39; research by Kathryn Kleiman and her team as part of the ENIAC Programmers Project.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, to honor of the 65th anniversary of the ENIAC&#39;s unveiling, the city of Philadelphia declared February 15 as ENIAC Day.</p><br>
<p>The ENIAC celebrated its 70th anniversary on February 15, 2016.</p><br>
<p>The Chafarinas Islands , also spelled Zafarin, Djaferin or Zafarani, are a group of three small islets located in the Alboran Sea off the coast of Morocco with an aggregate area of 0.525 km&sup2, 45 km to the east of Nador and 3.3 km off the Moroccan town of Ras Kebdana.</p><br>
<p>The Chafarinas Islands are one of the Spanish territories in North Africa off the Moroccan coast known as plazas de soberanía.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>These offshore islands were uninhabited and unclaimed at the time the French government decided in 1848 to occupy them in order to monitor the unruly tribes living in the border area between Morocco and French Algeria. A small expedition under the command of Colonel MacMahon (the future Marshal MacMahon) left Oran by sea and by land in January 1848 to take possession of the islands. Forewarned by its consul in Oran, Spain, which also coveted the Chafarinas, quickly dispatched a warship to the islands from Malaga. When the French arrived, the Spaniards had already taken possession of the islands in the name of Queen Isabel II.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Chafarinas Islands are made up of three islands (from west to east, with areas in hectares):</p><br>
<p>Isla del Congreso (25.6 ha)</p><br>
<p>Isla Isabel II (15.3 ha) (with garrison)</p><br>
<p>Isla del Rey (11.6 ha)</p><br>
<p>Under Spanish control since 1847, there is a 190-man military garrison on Isla Isabel II, the only stable population on the small archipelago, down from 426 people in 1900 and 736 people in 1910.</p><br>
<p>The islands had a certain relevance in Spanish environmentalist circles during the 1980s and 1990s as the very last individual of Mediterranean monk seal in Spanish territory lived there, until it disappeared in the 1990s. Nine out of eleven marine invertebrates considered endangered species and the second largest colony in the world of the endangered Audouin&#39;s gull inhabit the islands.</p><br>
<p>Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera , in ancient times Badis or Bades, is a Spanish rock  in the west of the Mediterranean Sea, connected to the Moroccan shore by a sandy isthmus. It is also connected to a smaller islet to the east, la Isleta, by a rocky isthmus. It is one of several peñones, or rock-fortresses, on the coast of Northern Africa. Vélez de la Gomera, along with la Isleta, are administered by the Spanish central government, and have a population consisting only of a small number of Spanish military personnel.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera is located 119 km southeast of Ceuta. It was a natural island in the Alboran Sea until 1934, when a huge thunderstorm washed large quantities of sand in the short channel between the island and the African continent, turning it into a tombolo. Ever since, it has been a peninsula, currently connected to the Moroccan coast by an 85 m long sandy isthmus, the world&#39;s shortest single land border segment. With a length of 400 meters northwest-southeast and a width of up to 100 meters, it covers about 19,000 m² or 1.9 ha.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Portugal and Spain passed an agreement in 1496 in which they effectively established their zones of influence on the North African coast: Spain could only occupy territory east of Peñón de Vélez. This restriction would only end with the absorption of Portugal into the Spanish crown of Philip II after the 1578 Battle of Ksar El Kebir, when Spain started to take direct actions in Morocco, as in the occupation of Larache.</p><br>
<p>In 1508, Spain launched a successful expedition under the command of Pedro Navarro to take the Peñón from the pirates who held it, and who were constantly attacking and looting the coast of Southern Spain.</p><br>
<p>In 1522, Spain lost the Peñón to a Moroccan Berber attack that resulted in the deaths of the whole Spanish garrison. Ali Abu Hassun, new ruler of the Kingdom of Fez in 1554, then gave the Peñón to Ottoman troops that had assisted him in gaining the throne.</p><br>
<p>In 1564, after a failed attempt in 1563, the Spaniards under command of García Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Marquis of Villafranca retook the Peñón, killing its garrison of 150 Ottoman soldiers. Mathurin Romegas took part in the capture, and Brantôme was another witness to the event. Spain has retained control of it ever since, withstanding sieges in 1680, 1701, 1755, 1781, and 1790.</p><br>
<p>In 1871, the Spanish Congress debated abandoning the Peñón, since by that time it had lost its military role, but in the end the proposal was dropped.</p><br>
<p>On the morning of 29 August 2012 seven Moroccan activists from the Committee for the Liberation of Ceuta and Melilla placed flags of Morocco on the rock. Spanish soldiers arrested four of the activists while the other three evaded capture. One of those taking part was Yahya Yahya, mayor of the Moroccan town of Beni Ansar.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera is governed by direct rule from Madrid.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The territory is reached mostly by helicopter via a helipad located on the upper sections. A landing area is located on the south end near the land entrance to Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera.</p><br>
<p>The Mare Island Naval Shipyard  was the first United States Navy base established on the Pacific Ocean. It is located 25 miles northeast of San Francisco in Vallejo, California. The Napa River goes through the Mare Island Strait and separates the peninsula shipyard  from the main portion of the city of Vallejo. MINSY made a name for itself as the premier US West Coast submarine port as well as serving as the controlling force in San Francisco Bay Area shipbuilding efforts during World War II. The base closed in 1996 and has gone through several redevelopment phases. It was registered as a California Historical Landmark in 1960, and parts of it were declared a National Historic Landmark District in 1975.</p><br>
<h2>Beginnings</h2><br>
<p>In September 1849, Lieutenant Commander William Pope McArthur was placed in command of the US survey schooner Ewing, which had been brought around Cape Horn to the West Coast by Lieutenant Washington Allon Bartlett. Upon reaching San Francisco, Ewing and the other ship assigned to the survey, were hampered from progress due to desertions of their crews to the gold fields, including a mutiny when crew members rowing into the city from Ewing threw an officer overboard in an attempt to desert. They managed to survey the Mare Island Strait before steaming to Hawaii to obtain crewmen from Hawaiian monarch King Kamehameha III. They returned to San Francisco in the spring of 1850 with the coastal survey of northern California beginning on 4 April 1850 and continued up to the mouth of the Columbia River. On 1 August 1850, while still in Oregon, McArthur purchased a interest in Mare Island for $468.50 then returned to San Francisco later that month to prepare charts and write reports.</p><br>
<p>On 15 January 1852, Secretary of the Navy Will A. Graham ordered a Naval Commission to select a site for a naval yard on the Pacific Coast. Commodore D. Sloat along with Commodore C. Ringgold, Simon F. Blunt and William P.S. Sanger (former overseer of construction of Drydock Number One, Norfolk Naval Shipyard) were appointed to the commission. On 13 July 1852, Sloat recommended the island across the Napa River from the settlement of Vallejo.</p><br>
<p>The Navy purchased the original 956 acres (387 ha) of MINSY on 4 January 1853. McArthur&#39;s family share (he had died a few months after purchasing in interest in Mare Island) was $5,218.20. The Navy commenced shipbuilding operations on 16 September 1854 under the command of then-Commander David Farragut, who later gained fame during the USA Civil War Battle of Mobile Bay, when he gave the order, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!" MINSY served as a major Pacific Ocean repair station during the late 19th century, handling American as well as Japanese and Russian vessels in the course of duty.</p><br>
<p>In 1861, the longest lived of the clipper ships, was brought to Mare Island Navy Yard for $15,000 of repairs. Syren had struck Mile Rock two times while trying to sail out of the Golden Gate.</p><br>
<p>Marines first arrived for duty in 1862 under the command of Maj. Addison Garland, who was the first officer to command the Marine barracks on the island.</p><br>
<p>Mare Island Naval Shipyard also took a commanding role in civil defense and emergency response on the West Coast, dispatching warships to the Pacific Northwest to subdue Native American violence. MINSY sent ships such as south to Central America and the Panama Canal to protect US political and commercial interests. Some of the support, logistics and munition requirements for the Spanish–American War were filled by Mare Island. MINSY sent men, materiel and ships to San Francisco in response to the fires following the 1906 earthquake. Arctic rescue missions were mounted as necessary. Ordnance manufacturing and storage were two further key missions at MINSY for nearly all of its active service, including ordnance used prior to the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>In 1911, the Marine Corps established two West Coast recruit training depots first at Mare Island, the second at Puget Sound, Washington. Mare Island eventually became the West Coast&#39;s only recruit training facility when the Puget Sound operation consolidated to the San Francisco Bay Area in 1912. Instructors trained recruits there until 10 August 1923, when they relocated to the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego.</p><br>
<h2>World War I</h2><br>
<p>In March 1917 MINSY was the site of a major explosion of barges loaded with munitions. The blast killed 6 people, wounded another 31, and destroyed some port facilities. Agents of USA Military Intelligence tied the blast to roving German saboteur Lothar Witzke, who was caught and imprisoned in 1918.</p><br>
<p>MINSY saw major shipbuilding efforts during World War I. MINSY holds a shipbuilding speed record for a destroyer that still stands, launching in just days in May–June 1918. Mare Island was selected by the Navy for construction of the only US West Coast-built dreadnought battleship, launched in 1919. In 1904, the pre-dreadnought battleship had been launched at Seattle, Washington. Noting the power of underwater warfare shown by German U-boats in World War I, the Navy doubled their Pacific-based submarine construction program at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard by founding a submarine program at MINSY in the early 1920s.</p><br>
<h2>World War II</h2><br>
<p>Base facilities included a hospital, ammunition depot, paint and rubber testing laboratories, and schools for firefighters, opticians, and anti-submarine attack during World War II. MINSY reached peak capacity for shipbuilding, repair, overhaul, and maintenance of many different kinds of seagoing vessels including both surface combatants and submarines. Up to 50,000 workers were employed. Mare Island even received Royal Navy cruisers and destroyers and four Soviet Navy subs for service. Following the War, MINSY was considered to be one of the primary stations for construction and maintenance of the Navy&#39;s Pacific fleet of submarines, having built seventeen submarines and four submarine tenders by the end of hostilities.</p><br>
<h3>War bonds</h3><br>
<p>Patriotism and esprit de corps among the workers ran very high. Mare Island&#39;s military and civilian workforce raised almost $76M in war bonds; enough to pay for every one of the submarines built at MINSY prior to VJ Day. More than 300 landing craft were built at Mare Island.</p><br>
<h2>Shipbuilding</h2><br>
<p>Mare Island Naval Shipyard constructed at least eighty-nine seagoing vessels. Among the more important ships & boats built were:</p><br>
<p>1858 – sloop-of-war, wood</p><br>
<p>1872 – sloop-of-war, wood</p><br>
<p>1874 – Steamer</p><br>
<p>1875 – monitor, steel</p><br>
<p>1886 – Revenue Cutter, wood</p><br>
<p>1904 – training ship, steel barque</p><br>
<p>1907 – collier, steel</p><br>
<p>1911 – collier, steel. Later converted to aircraft carrier</p><br>
<p>1913 – tanker, steel</p><br>
<p>1913 – Revenue Cutter Service harbor tug, wood</p><br>
<p>1913 – gunboat, steel</p><br>
<p>1913 – gunboat, steel</p><br>
<p>1914 – tanker, steel</p><br>
<p>1915 – tanker, steel</p><br>
<p>1916, destroyer – steel</p><br>
<p>1916 – battleship, steel</p><br>
<p>1916 – destroyer, steel</p><br>
<p>1917 Fifteen submarine chasers – wood</p><br>
<p>1917 – destroyer – (Destroyers for Bases Agreement)</p><br>
<p>1917 – destroyer</p><br>
<p>1918 – destroyer – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1918 – destroyer – (Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign (1944–45) – Battle of Okinawa)</p><br>
<p>1919 – destroyer – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1918 – destroyer – (attack on Pearl Harbor – Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign)</p><br>
<p>1918 – destroyer</p><br>
<p>1919 – destroyer – (invasion of North Africa – Philippines campaign)</p><br>
<p>1920 – battleship scrapped before completion under terms of the Washington Naval Treaty</p><br>
<p>1920 – destroyer – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1920 – destroyer – (attack on Pearl Harbor – Guadalcanal campaign)</p><br>
<p>1921 – destroyer – (attack on Pearl Harbor)</p><br>
<p>1922 – destroyer – (attack on Pearl Harbor – Guadalcanal campaign)</p><br>
<p>1922 – destroyer – (attack on Pearl Harbor – Battle of Peleliu)</p><br>
<p>1922 – destroyer – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1927 – submarine (sank 6 ships in 14 World War II Pacific patrols)</p><br>
<p>1928 – cruiser – (Battle of Savo Island – Battle of Rennell Island)</p><br>
<p>1931 – cruiser – (attack on Pearl Harbor – Battle of Cape Esperance – Naval Battle of Guadalcanal – Battle of the Philippine Sea – Philippines campaign (1944–45) – Battle of Okinawa)</p><br>
<p>1934 – destroyer – (Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands – Philippines campaign)</p><br>
<p>1934 – destroyer – (Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands – Naval Battle of Guadalcanal)</p><br>
<p>1935 – destroyer – (attack on Pearl Harbor – Guadalcanal campaign)</p><br>
<p>With the prelude to, and the outbreak of World War II, the Mare Island Naval Shipyard specialized in submarines, and other than a few submarine tenders, no more surface ships were built there. MINSY continued building non-nuclear subs through the Cold War including two of the three Barracuda-class submarines and, an early guided missile launcher. In 1955, Mare Island was awarded the contract to build, the first nuclear submarine laid down at a Pacific base. The shipyard became one of the few that built and overhauled nuclear submarines, including several UGM-27 Polaris submarines. 1970 saw the launching of, the last nuclear submarine built in California. In 1972, the Navy officially ceased building new nuclear submarines at Mare Island, though overhaul of existing vessels continued. was decommissioned at Mare Island in 1980, then rigged for towing back to Groton, Connecticut to serve as a museum of naval history.</p><br>
<p>1936 – submarine (sank 6 ships in 7 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1936 – submarine (sank 9 ships in 11 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1937 – submarine (sank 12 ships in 13 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1939 – submarine tender – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1939 – submarine (sank 4 ships in 13 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1939 – submarine (sank 11 ships in 12 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1941 – submarine tender – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1941 – submarine (sank 23 ships in 14 World War II Pacific patrols (3rd highest number for a USA submarine)</p><br>
<p>1941 – submarine (sank 18 ships in 12 World War II Pacific patrols (11th highest number for a USA submarine)</p><br>
<p>1942 – submarine tender – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1942 – submarine (sank 20 ships in 7 World War II Pacific patrols (6th highest number for a USA submarine)</p><br>
<p>1942 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1942 – submarine (sank 15 ships in 11 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1942 – submarine Vietnam War)</p><br>
<p>1942 – submarine (sank 16 ships in 11 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1942 – submarine (sank 3 ships 4 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1943 – submarine tender – (World War II)</p><br>
<p>1943 – submarine (sank 20 ships in 8 World War II Pacific patrols (6th highest number for a USA submarine)</p><br>
<p>1943 – submarine (sank 10 ships in 7 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1943 – submarine (sank 24 ships in 5 World War II Pacific patrols (2nd highest number for a USA submarine)</p><br>
<p>1943 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1944 – submarine (sank 21 ships in 5 World War II Pacific patrols (4th highest number for a USA submarine)</p><br>
<p>1944 – submarine (sank 11 ships in 5 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1944 – submarine (sank 1 ship in 3 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1944 – submarine (sank 4 ships in 3 World War II Pacific patrols</p><br>
<p>1945 – submarine tender</p><br>
<p>1945 – submarine (1 World War II Pacific patrol)</p><br>
<p>1947 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1951 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1951 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1957 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1957 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1959 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1959 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1960 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1961 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1961 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1962 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1963 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1963 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1963 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1964 – deep submergence bathyscaphe</p><br>
<p>1965 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1965 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1967 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1968 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1969 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1969 – submarine</p><br>
<p>1970 – submarine</p><br>
<h3>Riverine training</h3><br>
<p>In 1966, during the Vietnam War, the USA Navy transferred their Brown Water Navy Riverine Training Operations from Coronado, California to Mare Island. Motorists traveling along Highway 37 could often see USA Navy River Patrol Boats PBR, Assault Troop Craft ATC, among other river assault type boats, maneuvering through the sloughs of what is now the Napa-Sonoma State Wildlife Area, which borders the north and west portions of Mare Island. USA Navy Reserve Units may still operate the slough portions of the State Wildlife Area for training purposes, as the navigable waters are considered public property. The USA Navy Brown Water Riverine Forces were inactivated after the Vietnam War, maintaining only the USA Naval Reserve PBRs and auxiliary craft at Mare Island, until the 1996 base closure.</p><br>
<h2>Base closure</h2><br>
<p>Mare Island Naval Shipyard expanded to over 5,200 acre in its service life and was responsible for construction of over 500 naval vessels and overhauling thousands of other vessels. Though it remained a strong contender for continued operations, MINSY was identified for closure during the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process of 1993. Naval operations ceased and the facility was decommissioned on 1 April 1996.</p><br>
<p>The California Conservation Corps, Touro University California, and numerous commercial and industrial businesses are currently leasing property aboard the former naval shipyard. In May 2000, the Navy completed the transfer of a former housing area called Roosevelt Terrace using an "economic development conveyance&quot a method to accelerate the transfer of BRAC facilities back to civilian communities for their economic benefit. The Navy is also transferring property at the shipyard to other government agencies such as Fish and Wildlife Service refuge, a Forest Service office building, an Army Reserve Center, a Coast Guard communications facility, and a Department of Education school.</p><br>
<p>Tel Abel Beth Maacah, Arabic name: Tell Abil el-Qameḥ, is a large archaeological site consisting of a mound with a small upper northern section and a large lower southern one, connected by a saddle. It is located on the northern border of present-day Israel, about 2 km south of the town of Metulla and about 6.5 km west of Tel Dan.</p><br>
<p>The survey and excavations conducted so far (2012-2016) have shown that the site had been inhabited during the Bronze and Iron Ages, as well as the Persian, Hellenistic, Byzantine, Early Islamic, Crusader, Mamluk and Ottoman periods. However, the lower mound was not occupied after the Iron Age I (late 11th/early 10th centuries BCE), when occupation seems to have concentrated on the upper mound.</p><br>
<p>The site was fortified by walls and a rampart in the Middle Bronze Age II. These fortifications were reused in the Late Bronze Age in the south of the mound, but went out of commission in the Iron Age I. A silver hoard in a jug, dating to the end of the Late Bronze Age, is one of the earliest such hoards found in the country. The Iron Age I sequence is one of the densest in this region and includes strata of cultic, domestic and public nature. Traces of metal-working were found in the latter. The Iron Age II is represented by a very large stone wall in the upper mound that might be part of a citadel. A well-built structure dating to the Persian-early Hellenistic period was built above this wall and other Iron Age remains.</p><br>
<p>Since at least the early 13th century and until 1948 the mound was the location of the Arab village of Abil al-Qameh.</p><br>
<h2>The site</h2><br>
<p>The site is approximately 100 dunams (10 hectares) in size and sits astride the narrow defile of Nahal Iyyon, one of the four headwaters of the Jordan River. The Tanur Waterfall, fed by the Iyyon, is located just north of the site. From its strategic vantage point overlooking the narrow northern end of the fertile Huleh Valley, the site commands roads leading north to the Lebanese Beq&#39;a, northeast to inland Syria (Damascus) and Mesopotamia, and west to the Lebanese/Phoenician coast.</p><br>
<p>The tell is identified with Abel Beth-Maacah mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and consists of an upper mound in the north and a larger lower mound in the south, with a moderately high saddle between them.</p><br>
<p>The location of the town in such a strategic spot points to it having played a major role in the interaction between the various national groups and political powers in the Bronze Age (Canaanites, Hurrians/Mitannians, Egyptians, and Hittites) and the Iron Age (Israelites, Arameans and Phoenicians). Abel Beth Maacah was a border town, and as such, was exposed to these influences at the same time that it fulfilled the role of buffering, or bearing the brunt of, foreign invasions. Its proximity to numerous water sources and a rich agricultural hinterland was yet another factor in making Abel Beth Maacah a large and prominent site in antiquity.</p><br>
<h2>Name meaning and spelling</h2><br>
<p>Abel Beth Maacah means "the meadow of the house of Maacah".</p><br>
<p>The biblical name is spelled variously as Abel-beth-maacah, Abel Beth Maacah, Abel Beth-Maacah, Avel Bet Ma&#39;akha etc. The city is also called Abel Maim ("meadow of water") in.</p><br>
<h2>Identification with Abel-beth-maacah of the Bible</h2><br>
<p>The tell was described by a number of prominent 19th century explorers, including Victor Guérin, and Edward Robinson, who was the first to identify the mound with biblical Abel Beth Maacah (Avel Bet Maakha). The proposal has won scholarly acceptance, based largely on historical-geographical considerations. The identification is based mainly on the appearance of the town in two geographic lists in the Bible. In, the Aramean king Ben-Hadad I was solicited in the 9th century BCE by King Asa of Judah to attack the northern kingdom. He did successfully, although apparently soon after this, control over this region returned to Israelite hands during the reign of Ahab. "Ben-hadad listened to King Asa, and sent the commanders of his armies against the cities of Israel. He conquered Ijon, Tel Dan, Abel-beth-maacah, and all Chinneroth, with all the land of Naphtali". A similar geographic list is noted in the story of the Assyrian conquest of the region in the late 8th century BCE in: "In the days of King Pekah of Israel, King Tiglath-pileser of Assyria came and captured Ijon, Abel-beth-maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of Naphtali; and carried the people captive to Assyria".</p><br>
<h2>Second millennium BCE and biblical references</h2><br>
<p>Bronze Age references to the site include the early group of the Execration Texts (Middle Bronze IIA) and possibly Thutmose III&#39;s list of destroyed towns (Late Bronze I), as well as the Amarna letters (Late Bronze IIA; Dever 1984: 211–213). After the Assyrian conquest, the site is not mentioned in any later sources.</p><br>
<p>Aside from the two geographic lists quoted above in relation to the conquest of the town by the Arameans and the Assyrians, the site is mentioned one other time in the Bible:, which relates a call for revolt against David by a Benjaminite named Sheba ben Bichri. Sheba fled to Abel Beth Maacah, pursued by Joab and his army. Setting up a siege at the town, Joab threatened to destroy it, when the local "wise woman" (possibly an oracle) informed him that the city was loyal to David, calling it "a city and a mother in Israel" and arranged to have the rebel who took refuge there beheaded, and thus saving her town. This is the only time the phrase "a city and a mother in Israel" is mentioned in the Bible and might allude to its particular political and/or religious status. This narrative also emphasizes the town as the northernmost point of the Israelite state entity, although it is not clear to which time period this relates, since this narrative most likely reflects a time later in Iron Age II than the reign of David.</p><br>
<p>Though speculative, some scholars have suggested that the conquest of Abel Beth Maacah by Ben-hadad I may be alluded to in the second line of the House of David inscription found at nearby Tel Dan, where the letters aleph and bet have survived and might be the beginning of the name of the town "Abel" (Schneidewind 1996:77; Naaman 2012:95, note 10).</p><br>
<h2>Previous exploration</h2><br>
<p>Despite its obvious historical importance and geographic prominence, Abel Beth Maacah was not excavated before 2012. Previous study of the site involved periodic visits by representatives of the British Mandatory Department of Antiquities and limited surveys carried out by the Israel Department of Antiquities in the 1950s, by Yehudah Dayan in the 1960s, and by Prof. William G. Dever of the University of Arizona in 1972, who summarily published the results, along with a detailed historical-geographical analysis (Dever 1986). Subsequently, a small salvage excavation conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) at the base of the southeastern slope revealed several Byzantine tombs, as well as a group of Middle Bronze IIB vessels that seemed typical of a tomb assemblage, although no tomb from this period was found (Stepansky 2005).</p><br>
<h2>Current exploration</h2><br>
<p>The excavation of Tel Abel Beth Maacah has been initiated and funded by Azusa Pacific University of Los Angeles, and is conducted as a joint project with the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, co-directed by Dr. Robert Mullins of the former institution and Dr. Naama Yahalom-Mack and Dr. Nava Panitz-Cohen of the latter. The surveyor and stratigraphic advisor is Ruhama Bonfil of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>The project began in 2012 with a survey followed by four excavation seasons to date (2013-2016). For detailed field reports of each season, see, and for published preliminary reports, see Panitz, Mullins and Bonfil 2013, 2016.</p><br>
<h3>The 2012 survey</h3><br>
<p>In May 2012, a four-day survey was conducted, combining an extensive walking survey with limited shallow (up to 10 cm) excavation in six areas spread around the site. For a detailed report of the survey, see.</p><br>
<p>The survey showed that there was occupation in the Early Bronze II-III, Middle Bronze II, Late Bronze I-II, Iron Age I-II, Persian, Hellenistic, Byzantine, Early Islamic, Crusader, Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The survey also revealed that the lower part of the tell in the south has an outcropping of bedrock running through much of its center, indicating that the ancient remains in this part of the site should be sought around its perimeter.</p><br>
<p>An intact ring flask, apparently of Late Bronze Age date, was found in the survey in the vicinity of Area A.</p><br>
<h3>The excavations</h3><br>
<p>Five areas have been excavated to date. Area A on the eastern slope of the middle saddle (remains of Late Bronze and Iron Age I), Area B on the eastern slope of the upper mound (remains of Middle Bronze IIB, Iron Age I, Iron Age II, Persian-early Hellenistic), Area F on the southern end of the lower mound (remains of MBIIB, LB I-II, Iron I), Area O on the western edge of the lower mound (remains of LB, MBIIB), and Area K on the eastern slope of a topographical depression between the lower and upper mounds (possibly remains of a fortification, presently undated). In wake of the survey and excavations to date, it was found that the lower mound was not occupied after the Iron Age I (late 11th/early 10th century BCE) and occupation was limited to the upper mound and the interim saddle.</p><br>
<p>Excavation areas are marked on this 1945 aerial photo of the tell (Aerial Photographic Archive, taken by the Royal Air Force, Section 23, 1945); the houses visible on the photo belong to the Arab village of Abil el-Qameḥ.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Bronze II</h3><br>
<p>Remains of the Middle Bronze II have been revealed to date in three areas: F, O and B.</p><br>
<h4>Area F</h4><br>
<p>A large structure was revealed just under topsoil. Its southern end continues down the slope and its western end was cut by later activity. This feature is composed of an outer lining of very large, roughly worked stones in its northeastern corner and northern wall, which enclosed layers of small-medium roughly rounded stones.</p><br>
<p>Adjoining the eastern face of the stones is a rampart, partly capped by stones and composed of layers of chalky white material and dark brown soil, of which only the top has so far been excavated. The stone structure and rampart are part of a fortification placed on the southern end of the site, overlooking the Huleh Valley and the main north-south road that passed alongside it on the west.</p><br>
<p>The exact date of the tower and rampart cannot yet be determined, as no floors associated with them have been revealed to date.Against the northern face of the fortification are elements dating to the Late Bronze Age I-II, so that it the fortification should most likely be dated to the Middle Bronze II, though a more precise chronology cannot be fixed yet.</p><br>
<h4>Area O</h4><br>
<p>One, and possibly two strata, dated to the Middle Bronze IIB, were exposed underneath an eroded Late Bronze Age phase below topsoil.</p><br>
<p>The Middle Bronze Age remains consist a building with four consecutive rooms revealed to date, with entrances in two of them, showing that the rooms were part of one building that continues to the north. Traces of a violent end to this occupation were identified. The pottery can be dated to Middle Bronze IIB and included storage jars (some with baby burials) and pithoi. In the northeastern corner of the area, the skeleton of a large male was found lying on its stomach and partly covered by a pithos.</p><br>
<p>The lowest phase exposed consists of the top of a layer of stones on the western edge of the mound that might be part of an Early Bronze wall, judging by the pottery collected nearby.</p><br>
<h4>Area B</h4><br>
<p>Underneath remains dating to Iron Age I and IIA, a large rampart composed mainly of diagonal gravelly layers was revealed. An MBIIC grave that contained a Hyksos scarab was cut into this rampart and thus, it is tentatively dated to MBIIB. This rampart shows that the upper mound in the north was occupied and fortified during the Middle Bronze Age IIB, although the nature and direction of the rampart here is different from that found in the lower mound in the south (Areas F and possibly, K).</p><br>
<h3>Late Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>Remains of the Late Bronze Age were revealed in Areas F, O and A.</p><br>
<h4>Area F</h4><br>
<p>Three architectural strata, debris layers, and floors from the Late Bronze Age were revealed, abutting the northern face of the MBII fortification. The incorporation of the fortification as part of the LB buildings indicates that it was still in use during this period. The earliest LB stratum, built on top of what seems to be the foundation of the tower, includes two nicely built north-south walls; an earthen layer (floor?) with a well-built oven was found to the west of these walls; the pottery points to an LB I date. The third and latest LB stratum contained several walls (cut by Iron Age I silos and pits). On its earthen floor was a concentration of pottery and a small jug (a local imitation of a Cypriot bilbil) that contained a silver hoard. The 12 pieces found inside included earrings, an ingot, and hacksilver.</p><br>
<p>The latest LB layer in Area F can be dated to LBIIB (13th century BCE) and the remains exposed so far indicate that it did not end in a destruction, but was peacefully abandoned. These remains were later built over by an Iron I building and cut by Iron I silos and pits.</p><br>
<h4>Area O</h4><br>
<p>Remains uncovered just below topsoil in Area O are attributed to the Late Bronze Age, since they rested on top of a building attributed to MBIIB and on the basis of the small amount of pottery found associated with them.</p><br>
<h4>Area A</h4><br>
<p>The lowest level reached in Area A included several large walls, built of stone and brick, with associated Late Bronze pottery. The Iron I walls were built directly over them, with no trace of destruction of the LB elements.</p><br>
<h3>Iron Age I</h3><br>
<p>Remains of Iron Age I have been revealed mainly in Area A on the eastern edge of the saddle between the lower and upper mounds, where five strata belonging to this period have been excavated, as well as in Area F. In both areas, the pottery included many collared-rim jars, wavy band pithoi, small hemispherical bowls, a variety of vertical cooking pot rims, pyxides, painted carinated kraters, and pear-shaped jugs.</p><br>
<h4>Area F</h4><br>
<p>Remains of the Iron Age I were found just above the latest Late Bronze Age layer (dated to the 13th century BCE, LBIIB). These remains included a building with several rooms, as well numerous pits and silos. Some of these were cut into the LB walls, as well as into the top of the MBII fortification, indicating that the latter went out of use in this period. The pits contained pottery, a spindle whorl and an iron blade. One of these pits, cut deep against the wall of the MBII tower, contained a concentration of discarded cultic vessels. These remains were exposed just below topsoil. Aside from a large pit dug in the Persian period here, no later occupation was identified following the Iron Age I here.</p><br>
<h4>Area A</h4><br>
<p>Four strata are attributed to Iron Age I in Area A. This is one of the densest stratigraphic sequences attributed to this period in this region. Above the uppermost Iron I stratum were several flimsy modern agricultural terrace walls, but no ancient remains later than the end of Iron I (late 11th/early 10th centuries BCE).</p><br>
<p>The earliest stratum revealed to date appears in a few probes and contains several well-built stone walls and related debris layers with stone collapse and much pottery. The stratum above this has a structure apparently of a cultic nature, with various installations, such as a pit with animal bones, massebot (standing stones), a small bamah (altar). This occupation was violently destroyed, leaving large amounts of pottery, including collar-rim jars, pyxides, carinated jugs and kraters. On the floor of one of the rooms were several jewelry items, including an amethyst scarab set in a gold ring that belongs to the time of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom. Replacing the destroyed cultic(?) area was a layer of domestic nature, with many ovens and earthen floors. Directly above this, a very finely constructed complex was built, comprising a courtyard-like building on the east, a building complex on the west with a large open space on the south and room(s) on the north. A wide passageway runs between them. The external walls of the buildings facing the passageway are lined with stone buttresses.</p><br>
<p>In the western hall/courtyard, a complete pot bellows was revealed in secondary use, with traces of bronze and iron working inside; an almost complete tuyere was found nearby. It seems that there was some metallurgical activity in this area, similar to that at nearby Tel Dan in Strata VI and V (and possibly IV).</p><br>
<h3>Iron Age I, II and Persian-Early Hellenistic Period in Area B</h3><br>
<p>A large well-built stone building with three phases and dating to the Persian-early Hellenistic period was exposed in Area B. Below this building are architectural remains and numerous pits attributed to Iron Age I, including a floor with vessels and traces of destruction. Cutting this activity is a massive east-west stone wall that was partly covered by the Persian-early Hellenistic building and thus, it is presently attributed to Iron Age IIB. No floors associated with it have yet been excavated and it seems that it might be part of a citadel at this high point of the mound. Two large stone-lined silos were also attributed to Iron IIB; they contained much Iron II pottery, including red-slipped and hand burnished sherds, as well as the head of a Phoenician-style figurine.</p><br>
<p>The Iron I and II architecture and pits cut into and are built on the sloping layers of the Middle Bronze II rampart described above.</p><br>
<h3>Area K fortifications</h3><br>
<p>Located on the eastern slope of the northern end of the lower mound, in a spot whose moderate topography suggests the possibility of a gate here, a north-south stone wall was revealed, ca. 4 m wide and abutted partially on its south side by a white chalky layer. This might represent a fortification system, although no date is possible at this point.</p><br>
<h3>Field reports</h3><br>
<p>Field reports and additional references are posted on http://www.abel-beth-maacah.org</p><br>
